American Revolution Questions

French

• colonies supplied France with raw materials e.g. fur and fish
• contact and trading with Native Americans
• totalitarian, abolustist monarch with divine right
• close control from mother country

British

• farming of land e.g tobacco in Southern colonies
• few interactions with Native Americans economically
• fastest economic growth due to larger population
• liberal, minimalist central government and monarch
• minimal contact with mother country
• rate of economic growth of 3% from 1650-1740
• freedom of speech

Spanish

• underdeveloped settlements and economies
• abosutist monarchy, similar to France
• worked with the French to limit British influence

France

• Catholic, less tolerant to other religions
• small settlements
• population of 60,000 by mid 18th century
• reluctant to allow settlers from other nations/ religions

British

• diversity in population and religion due to large scale European and African migration
• 400,000 people immigrated from Europe and Africa between 1700-1763
• 5 seaports
• population of 1 million by mid 18th century
• tolerant to religious denominations

Spanish

• strong Catholic influence
• very few settlers in New Spain snd Florida
• not tolerant to religious diversity

• Recalled to power as secretary of state in 1757 and overturned a series of defeats 
• 1757 Militia Act established local militias in Britain, meaning troops in America were not recalled to Britain
• His global strategy prioritised combat in North America and the Caribbean
• Sent 25,000 British troops and paid for the raising of 25,000 American militia
• Developed a 3-prongued attack strategy that meant the British were able to capture Louisbourg ect. and re-establish power on the Ohio River
• Reversed the policy of British officers taking superiority over colonial officers, creating unity and colonial enthusiasm
• By 1758, the crown were able to deploy 45,000 troops (half were colonial volunteers) and France were only able to raise 6,800
• Paid Prussia to attack and occupy French forces in Europe, giving Britain military and naval superiority in America
• Co-operated closely with PM Duke of Newcastle to secure funding for the war

• First sugar act was in 1733, a 6d/gallon tax on molasses that only raised £21,000 in 30 years due to a lack of enforcement by sincure officers
• Second sugar act came in 1764, a 3d/gallon tax on molasses set to raise £78,000 in its first year with stronger enforcement
• mainly impacted New England colonies and their distilleries
• added more products to the list of enumerated commodities and a £500 fine for officials bribery
• in 1764 colonists signed a non-importation agreement
• By 1765, 9 colonial assemblies had written to the government about abusing power
• James Otis (later one of the Sons of Liberty) wrote a book in 1764 attacking government measures and coining the term no taxation without representation
• Repealed in 1766

• ban on colonial paper money that had been issued throughout the Seven Years War
• mainly aimed at Virginia
• coincided with a post-war economic depression 

• 1765
• First direct tax on the colonies in 150 years
• taxation on a list of 50 printed items
• revenue from taxes was to be spent on colonial defence (only 1/4 of money required)
• lower duties than those in Britain
• set to raise £60,000 in its first year
• impact on colonists from all regions and social groups, even some of the most influential groups

• May 1765 Patrick Henry introduced the Virginia Resolves, attacking the Stamp Act 
• 7 were adopted and printed in colonial newspapers
• 8/13 colonies agreed on them and condemned the act
• June 1765 Stamp Act Congress suggested by Massachusetts was held with 27 delegates from 9 colonies to denounce and seek repeal of the Stamp Act
• Popular militancy developed in American towns, especially in Massachusetts
• In 1765, effigies of Oliver and Bute hung from the Liberty Tree and mock Stamp duties were collected
• 2 British officials houses were damaged and stamp distributors began fleeing office all over the colonies
• 1765 boycott of British goods arranged by the Sons of Liberty
• Repealed in 1766 by Rockingham 275-167 votes after he replaced Grenville
• most of 10,000 British troops were at the Western Frontier in Nova Scotia
• non-importation was then abandoned and most assemblies sent their gratitude to the King

• Passed the same day as the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766
• The government did not want to lose parlimentary sovereignty 
• asserted that the colonies were subordinate and that Parliament had full authority to pass laws

• The New York restraining act
• enforcement of the 1765 Quartering Act on New York who refused it as it fell disproportionately on them
• New York assembly was suspended until they complied

• The Townshend duties
• not set to raise a significant revenue, only £40,000 per year
• external tax and relatively light - Townshend did not expect resistance
• placed duties on china, glass, tea, paint, paper and lead
• revenue would be used to pay British soldiers
• Established an American Board of Customs in Boston, giving officials more power to limit smuggling
• repealed in 1770 by Lord North but he kept the duty on tea as a stamp of authority

• Was slower to develop than that to the Stamp Act - was it a tyrannous act? and merchants were experiencing an economic boom
• 1768 J.Dickinson wrote letters to from a Pennsylvania Farmer, attacking the Townshend Duties and the suspension of the New York assembly as an attack on colonial liberties
• Pamphlet and Newspaper format spread throughout the colonies
• 1768 Massaachusetts Circular letter written by Otis and S.Adams denounced the Duties and called for colonial action
• approved by 7 colonies and Virginia wrote its own circular letter
• Sons of Liberty was revived
• 1768 Boston organised a Boycott of British goods and by 1769, all colonies par New Hampshire were partaking
• committees of inspection were set up to enforce the boycott and those who did't were tarred and feathered as a punishment
• Wilkesite movement gained popularity

• In 1768, a 50-gun naval ship and 600 troops were sent to Boston
• British soldiers guarding the Board of Customs were attacked by a mob and without order they fired into the crowd, killing 5 Bostonians
• Crispus Attucks, a freed slave, was the first to be killed and became a martyr for radical patriots
• Paul Revere created an exagerated engraving that was published in colonial newspapers to depict violence from an arbituary government

• Created a central federal government consisting of congress (legislative branch) but no executive or judiciary branch
• Congress would act as the central government made of the House of Representatives and the House of Senate
• Each state would get one vote in congress and could send 2-7 state delegates who were limited to term of 3-6 years
• 13 state constitutions 
• Congress had limited powers over states
• Congress could: declare war, raise and army and navy, borrow and issue money internationally, settle boundary disputes, conclude treaties (conditional on a quorum), make requisitions on the states for money and men in case of war, organise currency and establish post offices
• Congress could not: raise or collect taxes, regulate trade or enforce financial requisitions
• Treaties and new laws needed the approval of 9 states to be passed
• Any ammendment to the AOCs required approval of all 13 states
• mainly written by John Dickinson

• Britain wanted to launch a 2-prongued attack to separate the New England colonies from the rest of the colonies: Burgoyne marched with 9000 men South from Canada to meet with Howe from the Hudson River
• Burgoyne surrendered on 17 Oct 1777 and his 5895 troops became prisoners of war until 1783
• Saratoga is seen as the "turning point" of the American Revolutionary War
• After Burgoyne's surrender, 1/4 of British troops in America had been lost
• Britain began to sought peace - North sent a segret agent to Paris to discuss ending the war with Jefferson and Deane
• In February 1778, Britain Repealed the coercive acts and rennounced the right to tax Americans
• Because of Saratoga, the war spread into Europe
• Saratoga solidified French confidence that the Americans would not lose the war meaning the French would intervene and ally with the Americans. The Treaty of Alliance was signed in 1778 and the French began to send Naval support and troops
• The French Navy was very significant because the Americans did not have a navy to confront the British navy of 300 ships
• Was a morale boost for the American Army
• 1/2 of the American forces were militia, highlighting their importance in conflict

• The American colonies lacked unity at the beginning of the conflict
• America had to build its army from scratch, initiated by the Second Continental Congress of 1775 which created a quota to raise 20,000 men
• America did not have a Navy or a Naval Commander. They gained approximately 50 ships but they were not "ships of the line". Only when they allied with the French in 1778 did they become a maritime threat
• Lack of a strong National government Congress could not raise taxes to fund the war under the AOCs
• The colonies had a population of 2.5 million in comparison to Britain's 8 million. Also, 500,000 of the American population were slaves and another 500,000 were loyalists
• The state militias raised were not as strong as the trained British Army as few had experienced line infantry combat
• lack if food, clothing, tents and other military supplies
• After a large series of defeats, Washington decided he needed a more defencive strategy in Winter 1776-77
• In 1779 Washington faced issues with a lack of troops and diminishing enthusiasm. At Morrison during the Winter of 1779-80, his army was reduced to 8000 men and 1/3 of which were not fit for fighting

• Most Americans were committed to the glorious cause and the rally to arms was impressive. The "Spirit of '76" describes this attitude
• The American men were familiar with fighting on the terrain, Home advantage
• They had a strong military leader - George Washington
• The troops had a strong patriotic motivation to fight
• The militia were a strong force and were involved in important victories such as Saratoga, Trenton, Guildford Courthouse and more. Over 100,000 men served in the militia at some point and it was much greater than the continental army in force. 

• They were fighting 3000 miles away from home making supplying troops and communicating strategy difficult
• The army was at its weakest since 1763. 1/4 of its infantry in 1775 has less than a years service and its numbers were low (more like 36,000 than usual 50,000)
• The royal navy had been weakening since 1763 as North did not want to provoke the French 
• Lord North failed to offer direction or co-ordination 
• British martial law had alienated the support of moderate Americans
• The British were fighting in an unfamiliar landscape. Terrain and supply issues meant British forces had to be within 15 miles of sea or rivers
• The British were conscious of threats in Europe from France and Spain and had to protect their other colonies. If France allied with the Americans and won, they could become a greater imperial power
• The British reduced their presence in America. In 1778, 65% of the British Army was in North America and 41% of the navy were in American waters compared with only 29% of the Army and 13% of naval ships in mid-1780
• British seaboard strategy was unsuccessful 
• If the British wanted to reconcile, they could not destroy relations through fighting
• Native American warfare often lost the support of moderate Americans

• Britain had 8 million people compared to the 2.5 million in the colonies
• Britain had the support of at least 500,000 loyalists
• Britain had support from Native Americans to protect their land and liberty from American Manifest Destiny
• From 1775-76, Britain hired 18,000 German Hessians and more in 1777 
• Britain had bases in Canada, Florida and West Indian Islands
• Britain has the strongest Naval force in the World with 300 ships. 75% of Americans lived within 75 miles of the sea so this was crucial
• Britain had stronger financial and manufacturing power than America
• Lord Sandwich organised ship building programmes, ensuring British superiority at sea
• British forces had been housed in America because of the Quartering Acts (1765, 1774)

• Over 100,000 Americans served in the militia at some point
• They provided problems for small units of the British Army with suprise attacks and guerilla warfare
• Nearly 40% of Washington's men at Trenton 1776 were militiamen
• 1/2 of the American troops in the Saratoga Campaign 1777 were militiamen
• In 1781, the militia were involved in inflicting heavy casualties on the British, influencing them to give up on the fight for North Carolina
• Most believe that without the militia, the war could not have been won

• Lord Dunmore's 1775 proclamation stated that any Virginian slave would be freed if they joined the British forces
• Prior to this, Washington had banned all black people from service in the Continental army, endorsed by the 1775 Continental Congress
• By the end of the war between 800 to 2000 enslaved African Americans in Virginia joined the British 
• In 1776, around 1000 AAs joined Dunmore's Ethiopian regiment that had initial successes but nearly 500 died of smallpox and bad conditions after fleeing Virginia for the Bahamas
• Dunmore's proclamation influences Washington to reverse his opposition to Black troops
• New England colonies would allow black people to serve in the milita: 1775 - Massachusetts, 1777 - New Jersey. By 1779, Georgia and South Carolina were the only states to not allow black soldiers to join the state militias
• By 1777, Washington and congress accepted Black people into the Contintental army, primarily because of troop shortages
• Gen Clinton's 1779 proclamation stated that slaves that deserted their American enslavers for British service would be protected (interpreted as freedom). 1/6 of Southern slaves fled to the British lines
• In 1783, thousands of freed AAs escaped to Canada, England or Africa
• The promise of freedom was not always enforced but by the end of the war Britain had transported some 20,000 Black loyalists out of America to the West Indies or Nova Scotia
• The war weakened slavery as Americans were fighting for liberty, directly contradicting slavery

• Some women became spies 
• Provided healthcare, food, childcare, clothing, prostitution and moral support for men in the army
• As many as 20,000 women served with the military forces ancillarily
• Women gained political insights through discussion and reading newspapers
• Abigail Adams helped to write policies
• Betsy Ross created the first American flag
• Molly Pitcher/Corbin manned cannons and brought beer to dying soldiers
• Jane McRea was a martyr in death as she was scalped by Native Americans on behalf of the British
• Martha Washington accompanied GW throughout the war despite its dangers
• Sally Heming was Thomas Jefferson's mistress and possibly influenced the content of the first draft of the Declaration of Independence

• Most Native Americans took the British side in hopes American defeat could curb Westward expansion to their lands
• The Cherokees took the offensive against Northern American settlers
• Many other tribes remained neutral
• Native American warfare often shocked moderate Americans away from supporting the British. For example, guerrila warfare and scalping were against the gentlemanly rules of engagement of the 18thC
• Joseph Brant was the first Iroquois leader to stand up against the Americans and forge and alliance with the British
• Natives were largely underepresented in the terms of the Treaty of Paris and excluded from rights of citizenship
• The British gave the Americans land that had been previously protected for the Indians
• In 1784, the USA concluded treaties at Fort Stanwix and Hopewell, taking land from the Iroquois, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Cherokees

• Washington was a talented leader in winning the war despite great shortages of men and supplies. At least 1/3 of the Continental Army deserted fighting and his Army never was over 20,000 men. Even at a state of weakness the British had 36,000
• His successes outweighed his failures as he ensured victory and helped his men together through difficulty
• He had straegical limitations as he often planned beyond the capacity of his army, failed to make quick decisions, chose some bad locations to battle in, and acted on emotions
• A large majority of America's important decisions and responsibilities came from Gen. Gates and Gen. Greene
• Wahington was slow to grasp the significance of war in the Southern states and failed to see the potential of a campaign against the British in Virginia 1780-81 (Rochambeau commanded this, resulting in the siege of Yorktown in 1781)
• Washington became a source of inspiration, hope and leadership for the American people
• Him being a Virginian was important as he could gather Southern support whilst leading a mostly Northern Army
• His attack on Trenton in 1776 showed efficiency and the march to Yorktown in 1781 was a success
• He never defeated the British Army in and open field 

• Cornwallis had command of 8000 men in Virginia and moved them closer to the sea to maintain commuications with Clinton in New York and to be supplied by the Royal Navy
• Washington wanted to attack New York with De Grasse but was persuaded by Rochambeau that Cornwallis would be a greater target
• The French-American fleet of 16,000 reached Virginia and trapped Cornwallis at the Yorktown peninsular by digging parallel renches to inflict damage from a close range
• A British relief army from New York was delayed
• Cornwallis' army were trapped in a 3-week siege without enough supplies and surrendered on 19th October 1781

• In 1776, the Spanish secretly provided critical military supplies via the Roderigue Hortalez and Company
• Spain joined the War as an ally of France by the 1779 Treaty of Anjuez, thus becoming an ally of the colonies
• The Spanish provided supplues and munitions to the American forces 
• Spain provided financing for the final siege of Yorktown in 1781 by raising over 500,000 pesos in silver and gold in under 24 hours from Cuba. This allowed the French Navy to surround Yorktown from the Caribbean
• The Spanish wanted to regain Florida, Minorca, Gibraltar, and Jamaica from Britain and wanted to weaken Britain due to territorial losses they inflicted in the Seven Years War

• The French were motivated by a long term rivalry with Britain and wanted to avenge their territorial losses during the Seven Years War
• In 1775, the French began sending supplies secretly to the Americans 
• French soldiers smuggled themselves to America against King Louis' orders to get revenge on the British Army and experience glory. Lafayette enlisted in 1777 and became a General aswell as giving £200,000 of his own money to the American cause
• The French had sent over 5 million livres by 1777
• In 1778, the French entered the war as an ally of America by the Treaty of Alliance and began to contribute maritimely
• They supported the Americans after a series of losses
• money -> munitions -> smuggled mercinaries -> alliance -> navy -> troops
• The French provided a navy that could challenge the British naval superiority and reduce their supplies whilst playing an important role in battles such as Yorktown
• French generals made tactical decisions that secured American successes
• In total the French sent 1.3 billion livres directly to the Americans

• The French spent 1.3 billion livres directly supporting America on top of what they had spent fighting Britain
• The French were in a lot of debt on top of 1.3 billion livres debt from the 7 Years War
• The French people had just witnessed people successfully overthrowing a monarchy and government, inspiring the French Revolution and Jacobinism in 1789
• The French were largely uninformed by Jefferson of the secret negotiations between Britain and the USA, including the 1783 Treaty of Paris that was held in Paris!
• Alliance between the French and Americans weakened post-war

• The treaty was a major success for the Americans
• The British were generous to the Americans in hopes of weakening French-American relations
• Britain recognised the USA as independent
• The British conceded the Mississippi boundary 
• The Americans gained fishing rights in Nova Scotia
• Generous peace would lay the foundations for an Anglo-American commercial alliance
• France lost its rights to keep Americans out of its territories

• Congress was only in session intermittently and had no fixed place of gathering because of soldiers protesting for war pay. In 1783, Congress had to move from Philadelphia to Princeton, Annapolis and Trenton
• The National government was generally weak
• Not all members attended sessions, making it difficult to gather a quorum
• Most decisions were decided at a state level rather than by congress. Congress mainly directed war
• The Treaty of Paris 1783 gave the USA lots of Western land, overturning the 1763 proclamation meaning many people were moving past the Appalachians and forming new states. Kentucky had over 30,000 people and congress had to decide whether these large areas should be formally recognised as states with the same rights as all of the others in the union without the same history as an original colony
• The 1785 Land Ordinance was organised to split land in the North-West into 6 square-mile townships that could not become states as their population would be smaller. It was not successful as the population still significantly increased
• 1787 North-West Ordinance was organised to layout the procedure of approving new states. If a township had a population of 5,000, it could become a territory with a governor and judge chosen by congress. If a territory had a population of 60,000 it could become a state with representation in congress

• Britain
• With a weak National government and no executive, the USA were not viewed respectably overseas as a strong nation
• Both America and Britain were not enforcing the terms of the Treaty of Paris: British troops remained in North West forts in the Ohio valley and America didn't restore loyalist property and pay pre-war debts
• In 1785, John Adams was sent to Britain to discuss a commercial treaty and British troop evacuation but was ignored as the British saw Congress as unable to command its states
• Spain
• Spain opposed the Westward expansion of Americans to protect their possessions west of the Mississippi River and strengthen their ties with Native Americans
• In 1784 Spain seized Natchez on the West Mississippi bank to precent settlers from crossing and trading. This could have influenced Kentucky and Tennessee to ally with Spain
• In 1786 John Jay began treaty talks with Spain where the USA would have access to Spanish trade in return for giving up its rights to the Mississippi for 25 years. This showed the weakness of America in the face of foreign pressure and was only ratified by 5/9 staes required
• France
• The allyship between France and the Americans was weakened post war as the French were left out of the Treaty of Paris and their delegates refused to sit for the painting

• Large numbers of American merchant ships were seized by the Royal Navy
• Not being a part of the mercantile system impacted American trade. Tobacco production was reduced to 1/3 of pre-war levels
• Plantation economies of the South were disrupted by slaves gaining freedom for fighting for the British
• Congress could not raise taxes to repair destruction, pay of debts and pay those who served in the war
• In 1780, Congress is almost bankrupt
• In 1781, there was no National American currency
• In 1783, national debt stood at $41 million: foreign = $8 million, national = $33 million
•  To reduce debts, states imposed heavy taxes, impacting those with existing debts. Debtors wanted paper currency as they had a lack of specie to pay debts but creditors didn't want inflation and economic instability
• By 1783, paper currency was not in circulation and some states were not issuing paper bills. By 1787, 7 states were issuing paper money as debtors were winning political control.
• In Rhode Island, the value of paper money depricated and creditors fled the state, seeing an attack on private property - anarchy
• Robert Morris' attempt to privately finance a Bank of North America was unsuccessful as the government severed connections with it in 1784
• The National Government's only major source of income was the sale of Western land which only yielded $760,000 pre 1788
• Congress became further from gaining financial powers in 1786 as the states had incorporated a large part of domestic debt into their state debts

• Financial and economic problems led to civil disobedience as the states were not able to pay soldiers or rebuild farms that were destroyed and they regened on promises to print paper money to support debtors
• In Winter 1782-83, unpaid army officers met in New York to protest for back pay and half-pay pensions
• In June 1783, soldiers surrounded the Pennsylvania State House where Congress was, forcing them to relocate to Annapolis
• The Regulators was founded in Massachusetts to get reform of appointed officials running the state courts (courts were in charge of the credit system) and to free farmers imprisoned for not paying their debts. What was initially non-violent soon became farmers arming themselves outside of courts
• Massachusetts raised their tax to pay off debts and ignored citizen pleas. In August 1786, 1500 armed men stopped proceedings at the Northampton courts
• Daniel Shays led 1500 men to Springfield courthouse to prevent hearings. The Massachusetts governor sent 4400 militiamen from G.Washington to crush the uprising
• As the farmers pressed on to the arsenal in Springfield, the militia fired a cannon, killing 3 rebels instantly and 4 later
• The rebels were captured in February 1787 and sentenced to treason 
• Tension between the elite and their social inferiors

• Under the AOCs, the Central government had very little powers
• America looked weak to other nations
• Congress could not pass ammendments to the AOCs unless all 13 states approved
• Congress could pass laws with approval of 9 states but the states were not obliged to obey them
• The states had too much power and had established the confederations - there was no direct popular election
• From 1782-85 12 states put taxes on interstate and foreign trade
• Congress could not raise taxes so debts still stood
• Congress could not make certain decisions as a majority could not be reached
• Congress had to call to the states to raise militia and could not pay the soldiers 
• Congress couldn't regulate trade
• Couldn't deal with Shays's Rebellion
• Couldn't deal with disputes between Virginia and Maryland over the Potomac River

• The AOC was a failed form of government making the union look very weak
• leading to anarchy
• Congress were unable to deal with the financial, political and social problems of the 1780s under the Articles of Caonfederation
• Increase in both American Nationalism and Conservative nationalism
• In 1786, a meeting was held in Annapolis with 12 men representing 5 states to discuss commercial and trade issues, resulting in the suggestion for constitutional change
• Shays Rebellion was a trigger event that persuaded 12 states to meet in Philadelpia in 1787 for a redrafting

• provided a set procedure for new states
• 5,000 male adults = a settlement could become a territory and have a governor and judge appointed by Congress. it could elect a legislature with limited powers
• 60,000 male adults = a territory could become a state and form a constitutional convention and apply to congress
• would stop new settlement from allying with the Spanish at Natchez or declaring independence by binding them with old seaboard states

• There was very little ideological rift between the 55 delegates who all agreed on strengthening the central government
• Idea of checks and balances across the 3 federal branches
• None favoured democracy but did value liberty 
• Conservative Nationalism
• Some favoured abolishing state sovereignty completely
• The issue of slavery divided Northern and Southern delegates on the basis of representation in the Senate 
• The delegates had economic motivations to ensure the protection of their wealth. Because they had investments in certificates of public credit, they would gain economically if the central government was stronger as the value of these certificates would increase
• largest debate was over how states should be represented in the upper house (senate)
• Nationalists supported popular sovereignty 
• took influence from the Declaration of Independence's fundamenal human rights and the ideology of Montiequieu and John Locke

• poor weather and road conditions meant many delegates had a delayed arrival. On the appointed day, only the Pennsylvania and Virginia delegates were present
• Disagreements over the sovereignty of states and how powerful the central government should become
• Disagreement about whether the legislature branch should consist of 1 or 2 houses. Virginia plan proposed 2 and New Jersey plan proposed 1
• The Virginia plan was opposed by the smaller states that did not want to lose their rights to the dominance of the more populous states
• The most contentious issue was representation and whether the population of a state should affect its corresponding representation in congress. The Great Compromise was accepted on 16th July by one delegate from each state. It stated that all states would have equal representation in the Senate but proportional representation in the Representatives. A census would count population for representation and taxation and a slave was counted as 3/5 of a person (Virginia had a population of 747,000 of which 300,000 were slaves)
• The debate of slavery divided the Northern and Southern states. Northern states did not want slaves to be included in the population count for representation but Southern states did. Disagreement over whether congress could ban the slave trade. 

• Separation of powers between the executive, legislative and jucicial branch with checs and balances
• Federal government could now levy taxes, regulate commercial trade, declare war and pass laws that were superior to state laws
• states could no longer issue money, make treaties and lay duties on imports 
• Most resemblent of the Virginia plan with some ammendments
• Drafted by the Committee of Detail and finalised by the Committee of Style with 39/42 remaining delegates approving the final document
• 1789 Judiciary Act established a hierachical system of federal courts: 3 ciruit courts of appeal -> district courts -> supreme court. Jay was the first chief justice with 3 judges from the South and 3 from the North 

• There was a separation of powers between the executive, judicial and legislative branch with none being more powerful than the other
• A system of checks and balances to prevent tyranny
• The states were still given considerable powers (regulate internal commerce, could determine their own stance on slavery, could exercise juristiction) but were subordinate to the central government 
• President had a term of 4 years and House congressmen had a term of 2 years and Senate a term of 6 years

• William Patterson presented the New Jersey plan to preserve smaller state rights with a single legislative chamber that would have a vote from each state. It was rejected on 19th June 1787 7 to 3
• All states would have equal representation in the Senate
• The memebership of the committee of detail however was disproportionately favoured to the larger states

• President George Washington highly approved of the constitution
• Helped to save the course of the American Revolution at a crucial moment for the republic
• Gave the Federal government the ability to deal with foreign, financial, and social issues
• Authority was not concentrated at any power to prevent tyranny
• Took into consideration of both large and small states, slave and free states, patrician leadership and popular sovereignty
• The constitution still stands over 200 years later with only 27 ammendments since 1787

• Federalists supported the constitution and Anti-Federalists did not
• Federalists were usually men of property and position: lawyers, merchants, and planters whereas Anti-Federalists were usually less influential people like farmers
• Federalists had majority support in Tidewater towns whereas Anti-Federalists had majority support in areas of the backcountry
• Anti-Federalists wanted a Bill of Rights, feeling that the constitution did not protect indiviual freedoms
• Anti-Federalists opposed an strong central government, Federalists expressed its importance for foreign and domestic issues
• Anti-Federalists thought the AOCs needed to be ammended Federalists thought they should be abandoned
• Federalists thought a large republic was the best for protecting individual liberty. Anti-Federalists thought only a small republic was able to historically protect rights
• Federalists: Hamilton, Madison, Washington, J.Adams, Hancock, Franklin
• Anti-Federalists: Henry Lee, S.Adams, Henry, Jefferson

• The Federalist papers were a series of 85 articles by Jay, Madison and Hamilton published under the pseudonym Publius in 1787-88 for the New York press
• Most newspapers were Federalist owned - Only 5 out of the 100 major newspapers were in opposition of the constitution
• Jay wrote 5 essays, Madison wrote 29 and Hamilton wrote 51
• They urged the adoption of the constitution and addressed Anti-Federalist criticisms
• New York was initially Anti-Federalist as a majority. The papers, Jay's "An address to the people of New York", and Virginia's ratification influenced NY ratification in 1788 
• Became an example of classic American political thought

• Hamilton was exmple of social mobility within American society
• 1st report on public credit 1790 Federal takeover of all state debts ($21m) and all domestic and foreign debts ($56m)
• congress could become a National taxing power and the union would be strengthened 
• Not favoured by Southerners who had relatively little debt in comparison to the Northern states that had purchased government bonds cheaply and would have to pay the same taxes
• Madison wanted congress to reject the idea
• loss of state rights to finance
• compromise: southern states would be given generous tax allowances and the federal capital would be in the South on the Potomac River
• 2nd report on public credit 1790 National US debt was now at $80m , 80% of annual government expenditure was needed to solve it
• To raise funds Hamilton proposed an excise tax on on distilled spirits, passed in 1791
• value of government bonds increased
• led to the Whiskey Insurection

• Report on the National Bank  Modelled off the Bank of England
• would have a capital of $10m, 1/5 from the government and 4/5 from private investors
• Madison, Jefferson and Randolph opposed saying the Constitution did not give Congress this power
• opened in Philadelphia in 1791, unpolpular with Southerners and Westerners
• Report on manufacturers 1791 wanted the USA to have an industrial economic focus 
• plan for industrialisation with protective tariffs andf subsidies for industries
• shelved and passed in 1792
• increased productivity

the union had become more geographically divided by political views

• Native American policy delclared one of Washington's greatest priorities in 1789 under the secretary of war (Knox)
• Tensions between American settlers and Native Americans in the West
• homelands were created for assimilation
• 1790 treaty of New York between the Creek tribe and America to restore their lands from Georgia. South Georgia sold >15m acres of this land to speculators and North Georgian settlers moved onto this land
• In 1790 Washington proclaims encroachment on Native American land is forbidden
• Native uprisings in Ohio valley meant Washington had to use military force. 5000 troops defeated the Northwest Natives at the Battle of fallen timbers in 1794. 1795 Grenville Treaty gave the USA the lands of the Ohio and Indiana tribes
• Western Land policy Federalists wanted to sell western land in large chunks for high prices
• Anti-Federalists wanted to sell western land in smaller chunks at low prices
• Land acts of 1796 accepted the Federalist view, extending the 1785 surveys and doubling the cost per acre to $2 with only one year to be paid within
• By 1800, the government had sold <50,000 acres under the Act
• Whiskey Insurection Hamilton's 1971 Liquor tax impacted frontier farmers who made whiskey from surplus crops
• Armed resistance Philadelphia, 1794
• 6000 men in Pittsburgh set up mock guillotines, inspired by Jacobinism
• Washington raised a 13,000 militia 
• Hamilton resigned at secretary of the treasury in 1795

• Washington promised the constitution would feature a Bill of Rights to Anti-Federalists to secure their ratification
• Addressed the lack of specific guarantees of popular rights and reconciled Anti-Federalists to the constitution
• 10 ratified ammendments out of 29 
• freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, rights to bear arms, immunity against search without a warrant
• state had all powers not reserved to the federal government
• helped to convince states to join the union

France

• The influence of Jacobinism and the Execution of King Louis XVI worried Federalists with mob rule and anarchy
• divided Federalists and Republicans
• French declared war on Britain in 1793 but America did not want to enter as a French ally under the Treaty of Alliance 1778
• In 1793, Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality
• Citizen Genet was a French ambassador who gained American support in 1793. He spoke about attacking Florida and Louisianna and encouraged Republican mob demonstrations
• Washington demanded Genets recall in August 1793 and got a warrant for his arrest

Spain

• Spain encouraged Southern Natives to attack Western settlersand encouraging seccessionist plots of independence
• Jay's Treaty made the Spanish more negotiable as US and Britain looked closer
• 1795 Treaty of San Lorenzo: Free use of the Mississippi for America and the right to deposit goods in New Orleans, restrained NA attacks, accepted American claim to 31st parallel as the Florida boundary
• reduced argument for a seperate Western Confederacy
• boosted American trade

• Washington did not stand for the 196 Presidential election
• The new presidency became a matter of parties just as Washington had warned agaisnt as his cabinet became divided into Republicans, and Federalists
• The 2 political parties had become divided by 1796 over a range of issues
• Republicans put forward Jefferson and Federalists put forward J.Adams (Hamilton was accused of mishandling public money)
• Hamilton tactically put Pickney forward as his didn't like Adam's moderation and notoriously rivaled Jefferson
• His scheme didn't work and Adams became president and Jefferson vice 
• Washington feared the geographical divisions
• Washington was a successful and decisive President who brought unity to the cabinet, he was not involved in political conflict as such

Britain

• Had still not withdrawn troops from the North as promised in 1783
• British troops were encoraging Native American attacks on settlers
• In 1793, Britain blockaded America's maritime rights and seized 250 ships
• In 1794, war with Britain looked looked close
• 75% of all trade and 90% of imports came from Britain
• Washington sent Jay to London to negotiate the Jay Treaty 1794: Britain to evacuate forts by 1796, compensation for ship seizure
• American access to British West Indies for trade, Britain would have most favoured nation treatment for US commerce
• failed to get compensation for slaves
• Republicans thought the treaty favoured Britain too much 
• Anglo-American trade increased 3-fold

New England

• New Hampshire
• Massachusetts
• Rhode Island
• Conneticut

Middle

• New York
• New Jersey
• Pennsylvania
• Delaware

Southern

• Maryland
• Virginia
• North Carolina
• South Carolina
• Georgia

Educationally

• 75% literacy rate in the colonies compared with 60% in Great Britain
• lots of printed items due to availibility of paper from trees
• by 1763, there were 30 newspapers across the colonies
• from 1693-1767, 20 universities opened
• American Philosophical Society was formed in 1743

Religiously

• religious tolerance between diverse groups
• high church membership, especially in New England colonies
• egalitarian and democratic spirit helped fire opposition to British rule

• 400,000 immigrants from europe and africa between 1700-1740
• population of 1 million in mid 18th century
• 5 seaport towns
• high birth rate, American women had an average of 7 kids
• low death rate due to good health

• all colonies had a governor and a legislative assembly
• governors in royal colonies were appointed by the king
• governors in proprietary colonies were allowed to choose a proprietor to run the colony
• governors were elected (not by king)
• colonial assemblies were made up of an upper (appointed by governor) and lower (elected) houses
• 50-80% of the male population could vote compared to 15% in Great Britain due to land ownership
• a charter was a grant of authority of a state from the Crown to an individual or company, tieing the colony to the crown, rather than parliament
• most of colonial supervision was from the Board of Trade
• only 5% of the 8500 colonial measures submitted between 1691-1775 were disallowed by Britain

• The British didn't value the Native Americans economically or soially as the French did
• British settler made little attempts to assimilate with the Native Americans
• The Native Americans has a close relation ship with the French, Britains imperial enemy
• The British didn't trust the Native Americans
• The British didn't allow the Native Americans to pursue their methods of fighting e.g. tarring and feathering, going against Gentlemanly conduct
• The Native Americans attacked the British e.g. Pickawillany in 1752 with ambush guerrilla warfare for the French