Citizenship paper two

• Democracy
• Tolerance
• Diversity of population
• The Rule of Law
• Secularism (no official state religion)
• Constitutional monarchy

Human Rights:

• Right to life
•  Right to freedom of religion
• Right to freedom of association
• Right to freedom from torture

Political rights:

• Right to vote
• Right to secret ballot
• Right to free speech (within some reasonable limits)
• Right to freedom of conscience

Moral Rights:

• Right to education
• Right to freedo of thought and expression
• Right to be credited

Legal Rights:

• Right to a fair trial
• Equality before law
• Innocence until proven Guilty
• Right to representation

• Religion
• Culture
• Ethnic and National Origin
• Accent and Dialect
• Sexuality, gender and lifestyle
• Socioeconomic status
• Political views
• Likes and dislikes

Immigration is the act of moving to and settling in another country

Emirgation is the act of leaving a country with the intention of settling elsewhere

Factors causing Immigration:

• High standards of living
• Peace and political stability
• High human rights and freedoms
• available work and jobs

Factors effecting Emigration:

• Low standards og living
• Political instability and Civil War
• Dictatorship and lack of freedoms
• Unemployment and lack of jobs

• Traditional television e.g. the BBC, ITV, Channel 4
• Digital television e.g. Dave, UKTV Gold, QVC
• Newspapers e.g. The Times, The Daily Mail, The Independant
• Radio e.g. BBC Radio 1, Classic FM, BBC Radio Humberside
• Social Media e.g. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
• Streaming Services e.g. Netflix, Disney+, Hulu

A free press is media free of political oversight and control, they are free to print what it likes and freely criticise and parody the government.

The free press has several roles:

• Inform the public on events
• Influence public opinion
• Provide a place for the communication and discussion of ideas
• Hold those in power to account

Restrictions and Responsibilities:

• Censorship, not publishing that which may cause undue offence or distress
• Accuracy, publishing material that are accurate and factual
• Privacy, not unduely invading the privacy of others
• Public interest, only publishing work which is of relevence to the general public
• National security, not publishing stories that will compromise the security of the UK

The press are regulated by IPSO: The Independant Press Standards Oragnisation

The press regulator holds the press and media to account, ensuring they meet standards of accuracy, privacy, public interest, poublic decency and national security.

Acourt order preventing publication of an item is an Injunction.

Examples of censorship:

• The Watershed - no expletive, nudity or graphic violence before 9pm
• 'Bleeping' of inappropriate language during songs on radio stations
• Warnings before TV programs giving notice of violence, sex or expletives

The UN (United Nations) was set up after WW2 to try and regulate the relations between nations

The UK is:

• A member of the United Nations security Council (UNSC) as a permenant member
• A member of other UN organisations e.g. UNESCO, International Court of Justice
• A financial contributor to the UN
• Contributes troops and equiptment for peacekeeping operations

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) was set up in 1949 to defend against any action from the USSR.

The UK is:

• Part of a common defense, action taken against one member of NATO contributes an attack on all members of NATO
• They contribute troops and equipment
• Contribute funding and leadership

The WTO ( World Trade Organisation) was set up in 1996 to regulate trade and economic activity between nations.

The Uk:

• Contributes funding, personell and resources
• Helps to draw up and influence regulations
• Negotiates and debates with other nations

The EU (European Union) is an economic and political organisation set up in 1958 to provide unified laws, currency and boarders throughout Europe. Currently there are 27 members.

The UK used to:

• Contribute funding
• Send MEPs to represent the UK within the European Parliament
• Negotiate with EU and European leaders on EU treaties and documents
• Prove staff to manage and run the EU
• Take grants, funding and subsidies from the EU
• Help to form EU rules and regulations

As a Nation State

• Military Action, questions of legality, intervention and morality
• Sanctions, stopping trade with a nation or seizing assets
• Diplomatic Pressure attempting to persuade
• Non Military Personnel providing advisers or aid

Case studies: Iraq 2003, The Falklands 1982, Bosnia 1992

As an NGO (Non Governmental Organisation) e.g. OXFAM, Christian Aid

• Providing medical and humanitarian aid
• raising funds and supplies
• Raising awareness of an issue

Case studies: Syria 2011, Rwanda 1994, Chad 2006

Fundamental Principles of Law

• Presumption of innocence, everyone is innocent until proven guilty
• Equality before law, the law treats everyone as equals, regardless of status
• Right to representation, everyone has the right to be represented 
• Right to due process everyone has the right for a known process to be carried out
• Right to fair trail everyone has the right to a fair and unbiased trial

The purpose of the Law

• To rectify injustice, making sure that unfairness can be rectified
• Hold those in power to account, making sure everyone is held to the smae standard
• Regulate behaviour, ensuring those who harm others are punished
• Create a known set of rules foir citizens to abide by
• Create a deterrent to prevent injustice

The law often has to deal with complex issues where the rights of different individuals or groups has to be balanced to ensure justice and fairness.

Examples:

• The right of an employer to make money vs the right to an employee to fair treatment
• The right of a criminal to rehabilitation vs the right of the public to saftey
• The right of free speech vs the responsibility to offend or cause distress
• The right of the government ot act vs the right of citizens to hold governmentas to account

Of the Police

• Investigate crimes reported
• Ensure the saftey of the general public
• Arrest individuals suspected of criminal offence
• Collect and pass evidence to the Crown Prosecution Service
• Enforce laws and regulations
• Advise the public on crime prevention

Of Legal Representatives

• Provide advice and guiudence to clients
• Argue for the guilt or innocence of an individual during criminal trials or for or against liability in civil trails
• Assert the rights of those they represent
• Advocate in favour of those they represent
• Carry out routine legal work on behalf of individuals or organisations

Criminal law deals with issues between an individual and the state e.g. murder, assault, fraud, theft.

Civil law deals with issues between individuals and organisations e.g. emplyment law, divorce, property law, custody

Courts in the UK are heirarchal: a superior court can overrule an inferior one.

Civil Courts:

County Court <- High Court of Justice <- Court of Appeal <- Supreme Court

Criminal Courts:

Magistrate's Court <- Crown Court <- Court of Appleal <- Supream Court

Differences in Scotland

• 3 verdicts can be given in criminal cases: Not guilty, not proven, guilty
• 15 people rather than 12 on a jury
• No right to trial by jury, this is decided by the prosecutor

• Legislation Acts of Parliament which creat laws, amend existing law or repeal existing laws.
• Precedent decisions made in past court cases which provide a guide for current judges on deciding sentences and allowing evidence
• Common Law established legal tradition and practice which forms a background to legal business in the UK
• European Law laws passed by the European Union that are binding on the UK, such as the General Data Protection Regulation

Trade Unions are organisations that represent workers in a specific part of the economy. They represent their members by campaigning for higher wages, better conditions, or recognition of their rights.

Employees subject to formal disciplinary procedures have a right to a Trade Union Representative. 

Employees cannot be stopped from joining a trade union.

Trade Unions provide advice and guidance to employees who feel they may have been maltreated or discriminated against.

• Socioeconomic status areas with few higher income residents tend to have higher crime rates
• Urban status urban and inner city areas tend to have a higher crime rate
• Drug and alcohol abuse individuals with drug or alcohol issues are more likely to commit crimes
• Police presence areas with larger numbers of police have lower crime rates
• Level of Education those with higher levels of education tend to commit less crime
• Levels of Sentence higher general sentence can act as a deterent

Types of Sentence

• Prision Sentences up to life imprisonment. Prisons range from Maximum Security to Open Prisions.
• Suspended Sentences prison sentences which only begin if the individual reoffends
• Community Service a set number of unpaid work hours to help their local community
• Custodial Sentences remand in an institution or order to attend a police station regularly
• Fines  orders payed to cover costs and damages
• Tags methods to keep track of the actions of an individual

The Purposes of Sentencing

• Legislation this may give boundaries for minimum and maximum sentences
• Public Saftey the primary purpose of all sentences is to keep the public safe
• Rehabilitaion is the sentence likely to lead to the rehabilitation of the individual?
• Proportionate is the sentence proportionate to the crime commited?
• Deterrence will the sentence handed out deter others from commiting this type of crime?

Youth Justice is those over the age of criminal responsibility (10) but not yet adults (18).

The primary aim of the Youth Justice system is to prevent reoffending.

The carer or guardian of the young person must be informed of any arrests. A responsible adult must be present at interview- unless there are exceptional circumstances.

Minor Offences must be tried by specialist Youth Courts.

Sentences are generally slightly more lentient, and my include Young Offender's Institutes.

International Law governs the relations between nations. It is formed from agreements, treaties and general custom and practice.

International Law also sets out basic rules for war:

• Non targeting of citizens
• Rules on the treatment of prisoners
• Rules on how and when to declare war

International Law protects victims of conflic and disaster and sets out rules on asylum and refugee treatment.