French Wars

Facing the French on land 1793-1815

Defeat in the American Revolutionary War meant the British image was tarnished
Army pay poor and discipline harsh- lack of volunteers, so small army
France conscripted, so army large
Officers mostly recruited from landed gentry military families. Purchase system meant advancement by wealth rather than merit or experience
No purchases in the artillery or engineers
Duke of York reforms meant that some experience was needed for promotion
York- 2 years of service before captaincy, 6 years before major
Cavalry regiments were thin in number. Infantry regiment=2 battalions. One was meant to stay home and the other go on campaign
Brown Bess inaccurate and low rate of fire- British used fire by rank
French always attacked in columns, but only the first few ranks could fire
Early successes mainly colonial, with the British capturing French and Spanish islands. Tropical disease common when fighting in these areas
1797- Wellesley sent to India. Triumphed at Assaye and Argaum in 1803
1803-1809- Britain tried to re-capture French/Spanish colonies lost at Amiens
Failed to capture South American colonies in 1807

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1808-1814- Peninsular War. 1808- Spain and Portugal revolted against French rule
Wellesley succeeded at Vittorio Veneto, and Dalyrimple was fired after the Convention of Sintra, which involved French troops being taken home on British ships
1808- Napoleon invaded Spain and the army retreated to Corunna under Moore
1809- Wellesley given command of forces in Portugal. Captured Oporto and successfully won the Battle of Talavera. Became Viscount Wellington
After Bussaco Ridge in 1810, the British retreated to the Lines of Torres Vedras, trapping Massena there for the winter before he escaped in 1810
Wellesley captured Madrid after the Battle of Salamanca (1812)
Wellesley retreated to Portugal due to supply lines and flanking from the French
By November 1813, Wellesley had swept across Spain and advanced into France
Napoleon abdicated in 1814 and was sent to Elba in exile
Wellington never lost a battle and beat the French in all but number
The support from the Spanish and Portuguese troops bolstered forces
The navy was vital for the deliverance of supplies and troops
Napoleon had a couple of victories against the individual Prussian and British armies
Wellesley and Blucher then ended the war at Waterloo, a close-run battle in 1815

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The navy was the senior service, and was relatively prepared for war in 1793
Wooden ships of the line were supported by smaller ships such as frigates
The navy was heavily based on teamwork and discipline
Blockades started in 1793. Close blockades involved the main fleet, while open blockades involved frigates which would inform the main fleet of enemy action
In 1793, France's main port at Toulon was taken, but later abandoned
1794- The Battle of the Glorious First of June- the French grain convoy was destroyed
1797- Battle of Cape St Vincent- Royal Navy outnumbered, as the Spanish joined the French. However, the battle was won fue to Nelson and Collingwood under Jervis
1797- Spithead mutiny- discontent on pay, food, and officers. Lord Howe agreed to meet the conditions
1797- Nore mutiny- wanted power of veto over officers. Britain was defenceless, and the admiralty attempted to starve the mutineers. Ended due to split on radicalisation
Mutineers were killed, and discipline was falling apart
French invasion remained a threat, and the French fleet was amassing at Toulon and preparing to sail

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Nelson inspired men and officers to win trust and affection
1798- Nelson met the French at the Nile, winning control of the Mediterranean
1801- Copenhagen- Nelson disobeyed orders from Parker to retreat, and won
1803- Nelson given command of the Mediterranean Fleet
1804- Spanish and French had 102 battleships, while the Royal Navy had 83
Napoleon planned to sail to the Carribean allude the British, then rush back to Europe for an invasion of Britain when united with the larger fleets
1805- Villneuve set out, and Nelson followed. He couldn't catch up, so sent ships home to defend Britain, averting invasion by patrolling the channel
1805- Villneuve left Cadiz for Italy and Nelson gave chase, splitting the fleet into two divisions to break the line in 2 places at Trafalgar. Nelson died
After 1805, there were no more serious challenges to the Royal Navy
1807- Britain banned trade with any ports under the Berlin Decrees, and stopped and searched neutral shipping trading with France. This started the War of 1812 with the US
The navy allowed enemy colonies to be taken, and troops and supplies to be transported
British frigates tied down the enemy at the European coast

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The economy allowed the government to finance the war
1793-1802- annual growth rate of around 6%
Cotton production trebled and iron/steel output quadrupled 1793-1813
By 1805, there were 112 steam engines in London
The Board of Agriculture introduced improvements in land reclamation, selective breeding, and crop rotation. Machinery was improved in response to growing prices
Britain had a strong financial system during the war due to modernisation
Large amounts of money came from loans, amounting to national debt of £1 billion
Many canals were created and improved to make transporting heavy goods cheaper
Cotton textiles increased in value by 6x from 1793-1815
Trade flourished in South American markets, though trade declined 1810-12 due to poor harvests and war with the USA
The EIC exported to India and the far east, and brought raw materials such as saltpetre for gunpowder. EIC ships were also chartered to transport troops, and import duties
State ordnance yards alone couldn't produce enough for war, so the government contracted private companies which bolstered supplies
By 1815, mines and factories thrived, shipyards were busy, new markets were created

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Military factors
- The navy allowed protection from invasion, trade, supply, and blockades
- The army was commanded well and always succeeded under Wellington
- Prussian, Austrian, and Russian assistance was vital to sucess
Government
- 1793-1815- Most of the men controlling the war effort were nothing special, but Pitt, Spencer Perceval, and Lord Liverpool were successful
- The Tories reigned for most of the war due to a liberal split over the war, so government was relatively stable
- A corrupt and inefficient civil service was resolved in 1806 (abolition of sincecures)
Economy
- By 1815, the economy was thriving and supported the war despite heavy debt
- Taxes did not cause sufficient discontent for revolution, as wages were high. A relatively large proportion of the money for war came from increased taxes
Popular support
- Middle classes accepted tax increases, and the working class volunteered to support their country and protect from invasion

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