HSC10

Diagnosis is the identification of a disease process by a healthcare professional causing a person's ill health or other complaints.

• To clarify symptoms
• Help make a diagnosis
• Find out medical history
• Find out about current lifestyle

• Visual examination
• Using a stethoscope
• Taking blood pressure
• Reflex testing
• Measuring temperature
• Percussion
• Palpation

Looking at the affected part of the body where possible.

• Channelling sounds via a metal dish to two tubes in the ears
• From the lungs/heart/chest
• To identify abnormal sounds
• Eliminates background noise

• Feeling part of the body with the fingers
• Helps to detect pain by applying pressure
• Can detect tumours and swellings

• Patient's legs dangling over edge of the bed
• A point just below the kneecap is tapped
• Using a rubber hammer
• This stretches the tendon
• Sending a nerve impulse to spinal cord
• Triggers the thigh muscle to contract
• Lower leg jerks upward

• Placing one or two fingers
• On chest/body/back
• Tapping the fingers with the other hand
• Listening to the sound made

• A digital thermometer
• Disposable
• Placed under tongue
• Left until the thermometer beeps
• Record reading taken

• Using a sphygmomanometer
• Cuff placed around upper arm
• Pressure exerted as cuff inflates and tightens
• Stops pulse, restricting arterial blood flow
• Systolic reading - pressure of heart beat recorded
• Cuff is deflated and loosened
• Diastolic reading - pressure between beats

• Tissue biopsy
• ECGs
• Urine tests
• Blood tests

• Small sample of tissue is removed through a hollow needle or by punch biopsy
• Sample is examined under a microscope or through biochemical tests by a cytologist

• Electrodes 
• Attached to chest/wrist/ankles
• Recording electrical activity of the heart
• Healthy heart produces a normal wave pattern
• On a monitor screen
• Abnormal wave patterns indicate dysfunction
• Needs a cardiologist to interpret wave patterns

• To test glucose levels
• To test cholesterol
• To count blood cells
• To measure gas content

• To look up medical records
• To use a clinical support system to aid diagnosis
• To print prescriptions
• To help prescribe treatment

Diagnostic imaging is a range of techniques that produce 2D/3D images used to look at the appearance of internal organs.

• X-rays are electromagnetic radiation
• X-ray machine produces an invisible beam of x-rays
• Directed at a specific part of the body
• Sheet of photographic paper
• Placed behind body part being x-rayed
• Enables them to penetrate soft tissue
• Can't pass through thick bone
• Dense tissue/bone absorb the radiation
• Picture shows bones as light/white
• Soft tissue absorb less
• Picture shows soft tissue as dark/black

• A contrast medium
• Put into patient's digestive tract
• Medium contains metal salts that are opaque to x-rays
• Patient swallows the liquid
• Called a barium swallow
• Flavoured to make it more palatable
• Time is allowed for liquid to coat area
• X-ray images are taken

• Uses x-rays to build up an image of a slice of the body
• Patient placed on a table and slid into a tube-like scanner
• Scanner rotates around patient
• Emitting and receiving x-rays
• Data received is processed by computer into an image

• Patient placed on a table and slid into a tube-like scanner
• Gamma camera detects emitted gamma radiation
• Data received is processed by computer into an image
• The areas with the brightest colours indicates the areas with the most radiation

• Radionuclide is placed in patient's body, either by swallowing or injection
• Several hours are taken to allow it to travel to the body part being examined
• Patient lies still while gamma camera detects emitted gamma radiation

• Patient placed on a table and slid into a tube-like scanner
• Scanner equipped with electromagnets
• Passes through current to produce magnetic field
• This causes hydrogen atoms to align parallelly
• A strong pulse of radiowaves are emitted, knocking them out of place
• Radiowaves are stopped and atoms realign
• Produces a radio signal
• Detected by a receiver
• Data recieved is processed by computer into an image

• Uses a probe which produces high frequency sound waves
• These waves penetrate through soft tissue
• Gel is put on patient's skin
• Gel is used to make better contact between probe and skin
• Probe is placed on skin
• Receiver detects sound waves
• Connected to a computer that processes the data
• Computer creates an image

• At 15/20 weeks into the pregnancy
• An antiseptic solution is used to clean the abdomen
• Injection site is numbed with anaesthetic
• Needle inserted through abdomen into uterus
• Positioned with the aid of an ultrasound scan
• Amniotic fluid extracted

• During first 12 weeks of pregnancy
• Using hollow cannula
• Inserted through uterus wall to placenta
• Positioned with the aid of an ultrasound scan
• Sample is collected

• Testing for amino acid
• Heel ***** test
• Blood sample taken from baby's heel
• Blood is collected on piece of filter paper and sent to lab for analysis
• Levels of amino acid will be tested
• Test carried out during first week of baby's life

• Child lies back on dental chair
• Dentist examines teeth using a mirror and dental explorer

• Child asked to remove glasses / contact lenses
• Child sits 20ft from snellen chart
• Child covers one eye while reading out each letter on the chart
• This will be done with both eyes one at a time
• Performed by an optician

• Baby is laid on its back
• Its hips are moved gently outwards

• Performed by a optometrist
• Using a non-contact tonometer
• Blows a few puffs of air onto each eye
• Air bounces back at instrument
• Giving a measurement of pressure inside each eye

• The woman lies down on a couch
• Undressed from waist down
• A speculum
• Inserted into vagina
• Holds the walls of the vagina open
• Cervix is visible
• A small soft brush
• Used to collect sample of cells taken from surface of cervix
• Sample sent to the lab for analysis

• Uses x-rays
• Taken of each breast separately
• Breast placed on x-ray machine and gently compressed with a clear plate
• Two x-rays are taken at different angles
• X-ray results examined by radiographer
• Results sent to patient

• GP holds a small torch against the lump in the testicles to see whether light passes through it
• Cancer lumps tend to be solid

Active Immunity:

• Acquired from vaccinations
• Production of antibodies against disease

Passive Immunity:

• Antibodies passed from mother to baby
• Shorter lasting than active

• Vaccines are dead or weakened pathogens
• Of a specific disease
• Injected into the body
• Stimulating an immune response
• Body produces antibodies
• Memory cells produced
• On second exposure memory cells recognise pathogens
• Antibodies destroy pathogen
• Protected against disease in the future
• Fewer people pass on disease

• Diphtheria
• Pertussis (Whooping Cough)
• Tetanus
• MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella)

• Bacterial infection
• Corynebacterium diphtheriae
• Spread through respiratory droplets (by coughs/sneezes of an infected person)
• Or spread by contaminated food
• Symptoms: sore throat, high temperature, breathing difficulties
• Causes foul smelling blood stained mucus
• Once infected toxins produced by bacteria spread through bloodstream to organs

• Bacterial infection
• Bordetella pertussis
• Spread through respiratory droplets (by a cough/sneeze of an infected person)
• In the lungs and airways
• Symptoms: runny nose, high temperature, vomiting after coughing
• Causes a dry, intense cough which makes a 'whooping' noise

• Bacterial infection
• C. tetani
• Lives in soil
• Caused by flesh wounds being contaminated
• Symptoms: spasms, stiffness, lockjaw
• Untreated can cause death

• Viral infection
• Paramyxovirus
• Spread through respiratory droplets (from coughs/sneezes of an infected person)
• Symptoms: cold-like symptoms e.g. fatigue, red and sensitive-to-light eyes, high temperature
• After four days a reddish-brown skin rash develops behind the ears and spreads to the rest of the body
• Can cause blindness/death

• Viral infection
• Spread through respiratory droplets (by coughs/sneezes of an infected person)
• Symptoms: headaches, joint pain, high temperature
• Causes painful swellings at the side of the face
• 'Hamster face' appearance

• Caused by a virus
• Airborne
• Symptoms: red-pink skin rash covering the body, swollen glands, cold-like symptoms

• Bacterial infection
• Cholerae bacterium
• Spread by drinking contaminated water
• Symptoms: severe diarrhoea, vomiting, dehydration
• Can cause severe dehydration

• Viral infection
• Hepatitis A virus/Hepatitis B virus
• Spread by eating contaminated food (hepatitis A)
• Or by infected bodily fluids (hepatitis B)
• Symptoms: vomiting, fatigue, loss of appetite

• Caused by bacteria
• Salmonella typhi
• Caused by contaminated food / water
• Symptoms: vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhoea
• Can cause: blood poisoning and internal bleeding in the digestive system

• Viral infection
• Spread by being bitten/scratched by an infected animal
• Symptoms: vomiting, high temperature, headaches
• Can cause death

• High temperature
• Cold-like symptoms
• Fatigue
• Loss of appetite
• Aching muscles
• Redness at the injection site

Stimulating an immune response via a pathogen.

An injection of a dead or weakened pathogen.

• Cholera
• Hepatitis A
• Hepatitis B
• Typhoid
• Rabies

• Bed rest
• Drinking plenty of fluids
• Keep warm
• Take over-the-counter medication

• Individuals can be nursed in the comfort of their own home
• Family/friends provide basic nursing care
• Supervise treatment/'administering of medication
• Informal carers can manage hygiene e.g. bathing/washing
• Informal carers can provide nutrition
• Help prevent pressure sores

• Patient has a minor illness
• Patient has home dialysis
• Person is diabled but doesn't require hospital care
• Person is elderly and bed ridden
• Patient isn't able to care for themselves

• By mouth
• Sprays
• Inhalers
• Suppositories
• Injection
• Cream

• Effectiveness
• Safety
• Outline any severe side effects

• Over-the-counter
• Not as strong as prescription drugs
• Not prescribed by the GP

• Chemical may be damaged by digestion
• May take too long to be absorbed into the bloodstream
• Unable to swallow as unconscious

• Chemical name
• Generic name
• Brand name

• make up chemical imbalance
• help body fight infectious diseases
• relieve or palliate symptoms
• reduce pain

• Chemical make up
• Disorder treated
• Specific effects on the body

Surgery involving incision, inspection and the removal of diseased tissues or organs or the replacement/redirection of body channels or implantation of electronic/medical devices.

• Remove unhealthy tissue
• Modify or rebuild damaged or dieased body structures
• Bypass malfunctioning organs
• Implant electronic or medical devices to improve body functions

• Taking organs from a donor person and using them to replace diseased organs in a patient
• Organs and tissues that can be successfully transplanted include: the heart, lungs, liver, kidney, bone marrow and cornea

• Microbe-free practices
• To avoid wound contamination
• During surgery
• E.g. sterilisation of implements

• Using drugs/chemicals
• To block nerve pathways
• No loss of consciousness
• Pain free

• Dental treatment
• Epidurals for childbirth
• Stitches
• Eye surgery
• Endoscopy
• Brain surgery

Using a range of specialised equipment to perform operations on very small structures in the body.

• Using intense beams of light to cut through tissue
• The laser is focused on a very small spot, enabling great precision to be used
• Lasers can be used to remove skin blemishes

• An endoscope is a long, thin, flexibe tube
• Inserted through a natural opening e.g. down the throat
• By small incision
• The tube has a light and camera at the end
• Transmits an image to a monitor screen
• Image is shown on screen
• Used to collect tissue samples
• Keyhole surgery
• A tiny brush/instrument cuts away small sample of tissue

• High intensity radiation is used
• Will destroy cancer cells in the patient's body
• By damaging cancerous cells
• A beam of radiation is focused on the tumour in the body
• Building up effect through repeated low level doses
• To minimise damage to their healthy cells

• A small incision made in the lower abdomen
• A bag of liquid containing salts inserted (suspended)
• Contents empty due to gravity
• Through a catheter into cavity
• So waste from blood diffuses into the liquid
• Waste is then discarded

• Incision made in arm/leg
• A tube inserted in
• Needle inserted to connect to a tube
• Leading to a dialysis machine 
• Blood pumped through machine and filtered
• Waste from blood diffuses in machine
• Saline solution fed back into blood

For:

• They have a choice as a patient which is a basic human right
• By continuing with his dietary pattern whilst on the waiting list for surgery his weight may be increasing
• Patient already has diabetes type 2 as a result of his lifestyle – this lifestyle may affect other organs and the management of his diabetes
• All humans are equally deserving – principle of NHS

Against:

• Patient is responsible for his own health and predicament
• Places a drain on NHS resources including staffing, equipment, drugs
• Wastes NHS resources
• The surgery is expensive

For:

• Patient has a choice which is a basic human right
• Condition may worsen
• Unethical for doctors to deny treatment - Hippocratic oath

Against:

• Responsible for his own ill health
• Side effects may be worse than benefits
• Using up limited NHS resources