Psychology

"A science that aims to observe describe and explain how we think, feel and act" (Myers 2005)

Psychologists approach their studies in an orderly systematic way, in order to obtain objective information.

They study - overt, observable behaviour and covert behaviour, private mental processes that cannot be directly observed or measured.

• To observe human behaviour.
• To describe human thoughts and behaviours (what is the nature of behaviour?).
• To explain why these behaviours occur.
• To predict how, why and when these behaviours will occur again.
• To modify and improve behaviours to better the lives of individuals and society as a whole.

• 470-347 BC Socrates Greek philosopher

• 428-347 BC Plato Greek philosopher. Argued role of nature in psychological development

• 384-322 BC Aristotle Greek philosopher. Argued role of nurture in psychological development.

• 1637 Rene Descartes French philosopher. Mind and body separate. Dualism.

• 1809-1882 Charles Darwin British naturalist. Theory of natural selection. Influenced functionalist school and field of evolutionary psychology.
  

• 1879 Wilhelm Wundt German psychologist. Father of psychology. First psychology lab in Germany 1879. Helped develop the field of structuralism.

• 1895 William James American psychologist. First psychology lab in America. Helped develop field of functionalism (1895). Fist modern psychology book.

• 1904 Ivan Pavlov Russian psychologist. Experiments on learning led to the principles of classical conditioning.

• 1905 Edward Thorndike American psychologist. The Law of Effect. Operant conditioning. Reinforcement and punishment.

• 1913 John B. Watson American psychologist. Contributed to the field of behaviourism Little Albert classical conditioning experiment 1920.

• 1920 Sigmund Freud Austrian psychologist. Founded field of psychodynamic psychology. Human psyche, id, ego & superego.

• 1924 Mary Cover-Jones American developmental psychologist. Little Peter classical conditioning experiment 1924.

• 1938 B. F. Skinner American psychologist. Contributed to school of behaviourism. Operant conditioning box experiment, positive, negative reinforcement & punishment.

• 1943 Abraham Maslow American psychologist.  Humanistic approach. Hierarchy of needs (1945).

• 1959 Carl Rogers American psychologist. Humanistic theory. Self-concept.

• 1967 Ulric Neisser German American psychologist. Cognitive psychology.

Psychology is a new science that can be traced back to ancient Greece. 

The emphasis was a philosophical one, with great thinkers such as Socrates (470 BC - 399 BC) infuencing Plato (427 BC - 347 BC), who in turn influenced Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC - died aged 61/62 years old).

These early philosophers discussed topics such as, memory, free will vs determinism, nature vs. nurture, attraction etc.

Aristotle (300 BC) - questioned and learned about memory, motivation, emotion, personality and perception. He used observation and logic to study his ideas.

Rene Descartes (1600s) - introduced the idea of dualism (1637), which asserted that the mind and body are two separate entities that interact. The nature vs. nurture debate is rooted in these early philosophical traditions.

In the early days of psychology there were two dominant theoretical perspectives - 

Structuralism 

Functionalism

17th century (1600s), French Philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism (1637) which asserted that the mind and body were two entities that interact to form the human experience.

• Structuralism 1st major school of thought in psychology.
• Pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920), known as the father of psychology.
• Opened first psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879). This was the beginning of moder experimental psychology.
• Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components.
• Wundt analysed the workings of the mind in a structured way, the emphasis on objective measurement and control.
• Introspection was used, required subjects to relate what was going on in their minds while performing tasks.

• William James developed functionalism 1895, it disagreed with structuralism. 
• James argued that the mind is constantly changing, pointless to look at structure of conscious experience. 
• proposed focus should be on how and why and organism does something (functions of brain).
• James wrote "The principles of Psychology" first modern Psychology textbook (1890).
• Functionalism is concerned with how mental processes, emotions, self-concept and perceptual abilities work to influence human behaviour.
• Emphasis on the cause and consequences of behaviour has influenced Psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) - 

We are driven by basic biological motives. Involves understanding how our basic instincts are channelled to produce civilised behaviour and what can go wrong in this process.

Iceberg analogy - conscious, preconscious, unconscious.

• Conscious (fully aware of thoughts and feelings)
• Preconscious (not accessible at all times but can easily be recalled)
• Unconscious (Trauma, repressed thoughts, memories and feelings)

According to Freud we have three characters that make up Psyche:

• ID (pleasure principle: instincts)
• SUPEREGO (morality principle: morality)
• EGO (reality principle: reality)

The ID:
Infantile, selfish, demands immediate gratification.
Present from birth and governed by pleasure principle.
Seeks pleasure no matter the cost.
Always wants to do something risky.
The EGO:
Considerate, rational, realistic.
Develops at 2/3 years. We become aware that other people have feelings, and we can't always have our own way.
Governed by reality principle.
Rational part of us has deferred gratification.
The SUPEREGO:
Morality - conscience.
Learn morals and internalise them, comprised of ego, ideal and conscience.
Developed at around 5 years old.
Guilty feeling wants to be in control, safe and predictable.

Conflict with the human psyche and defence mechanisms - 

Psyche can be in a state of conflict, opposing demands of the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO conflict with each other. 

The ID's selfish demands conflict with SUPEREGO's moral demands, as a result we feel anxiety.

The mind develops various ways of defending itself - 

Defence mechanisms and repression, the EGO tries to resolve the conflict by using these.

Defence mechanisms are unconscious and a key dynamic of personality.

Repression is when the EGO tries to bury something that it can't deal with in the unconscious.

Denial = Refusing to believe something is real of exists – Alcoholic denying they have a problem and still drinking every day.

Displacement = Taking out impulses on a less threatening target – Slamming doors instead of hitting something

Regression = Returning to previous stage in development – Returning to bed wetting or thumb sucking

Rationalisation = Supplying a logical or rational reason instead of the real reason – Saying you failed and exam because you didn’t want to pass instead of the fact you didn’t try

Projection = Placing your problems onto someone else – When losing an argument calling the other person stupid or saying it’s their fault

Intellectualisation = Avoiding emotions and focusing on the intellectual side – Focusing on planning funeral instead of grieving

Sublimation = Acting out socially unacceptable impulses in a socially accepted way – Submitting aggressive impulses towards boxing or becoming surgeon because you want to cut people

Repression = Burying something in subconscious – Forgetting abuse due to trauma/ anxiety

Reaction formation = Taking opposite belief, true belief brings anxiety – Homophobia, racism, then loving gays or blacks

Freud: people are driven by repressed and unconscious instincts, urges and motives such as, their aggressive and sexual instincts.

Dreams are: "disguised as fulfilment of repressed wishes." Dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, with fulfilment and motivations.

2 components of dreams - 

• Manifest content 
• Latent content 

Dreams censored to protect dreamer, censorship allows repressed, repressed forbidden desires and impulses to be expressed without guilt or anxiety.

Freuds theory contributed to the rise in dream interpretation. Dream rebound therapy - suppression/repression of thoughts and urges results in the individual dreaming about it.

Dreams play an important role in processing emotions and stressful situations.

Optimistic view of humans focuses on the capacity to overcome pain and despair.

Whole person and their uniqueness.

People have free will, are good and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better.

People are motivated to achieve their potential and self-actualize to achieve psychological growth fulfilment and satisfaction in life.

People seek to enhance themselves.

"Third force" in psychology after psychodynamic and behaviourism (Maslow, 1968). Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow describe how self-actualization can be achieved.

FATHER OF COUNSELLING 

Self-concept

• Self-image: view of self
• Self-esteem/worth: value of self
• Ideal self: wish you were like

Ideal self may not be consistent with what happens in life.

Incongruence - differences between ideal self and actual self.

Congruence - Ideal self and actual self consistent. State of congruence is rare; most people experience incongruence.

The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard.

Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization they must be in a state of congruence.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs - 

Humans are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

These needs are organised in a hierarchy of pre-potency in which basic needs must be met prior to higher needs.

The order of needs can be flexible based on circumstances or individual differences.

Most behaviour is multi-motivated (simultaneously determined by more than one basic need.)

Self-actualization (top, least important)

• Desire to become the most that one can be.

Esteem

• Respect, self-esteem, status, freedom.

Love and belonging

• Friendship, intimacy, family, sense of connection.

Safety needs

• Personal security, employment, resources, health.

Physiological needs (bottom, most important)

• Air, water, food, shelter, sleep, clothing, reproduction

Humanistic therapies used widely in health and education.

Client centred therapy and gestalt therapy

Improves quality of life.

Psychological disorders are a product of self-deceit.

Helps clients view themselves and their situations with greater insight and acceptance.

Supportive non-judgemental, unconditional positive regard from therapist.

Focuses on present rather than past.

Ulric Neisser 1967 - Introduced the term cognitive psychology, defined as the study of processes behind the perception, transformation, storage, and recovery of information.

Cognitive psychology involves the study of internal mental processes – workings of the brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-solving and learning.

Study of how people think and process information to understand the human brain.

Focuses strictly on observable behaviour, not thoughts or emotions.

Allows psychologists to help people deal with psychological difficulties.

• Attention - our ability to process information in the environment while tuning out irrelevant details.
• Choice-based behaviour
• Decision-making
• Forgetting
• Information processing
• Language acquisition – how we learn to read, write and express ourselves.
• Memory
• Problem-solving
• Speech perception
• Visual perception

“Cognitive revolution” put greater emphasis on understanding the way people process information and how thinking patterns contribute to psychological distress.

New treatments developed to help treat depression, anxiety, phobias and more.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and rational emotive behaviour therapy, focus on the underlying cognitions, or thoughts that contribute to psychological distress.

Neuroscience/biological perspective relates to the way people act in terms of how they came to be. Genetics in the body affect the way that people react to certain situations or the way they act in different situations. Genetics will influence how a person acts throughout their life.

Theory looks on the way the nervous system and immune system operate to understand fully the basis under which the body continues to evolve and function.

Actions are less a part of choice, but more the result of genetics.

This makes it difficult to change actions in a more positive light, though not impossible. This perspective can be used to gain a thorough understanding of human behaviours.

Charles Darwin (1980) – 

Studied the way that genetics and evolution interact within society and the way natural selection continues to provide ways for the human species to grow and change. 

Natural selection ensures that the next generation will be superior to the one before it. Genetics play the most important role in creating and individual as the person that they will be.

3 main points to cognitive psychology 

• It was founded by Charles Darwin.
• It relates to the way genetics influence behaviour.
• It is limited by the scientific method. 

Behaviourism is the practice of behaviour therapists, psychologists, applied behavioural analysts and CBT therapists.

Functional analysis is carried out to assess why behaviours happen and the reinforcements that maintain them.

Behaviour is then shaped by using reinforcement to get the desired/preferred behaviour.

Preferred/desired behaviours are reinforced as are successive approximations of the behaviour.

Unwanted behaviours are systematically ignored through process of extinction.

3 types of behavioural learning: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Observational/Social Learning (SLT).

Learning to make a reflex response to stimulus other than the natural stimulus.

Classical conditioning is a theory of learning that examines how a response is associated with a stimulus to cause conditioning. This works by building up an association between to stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) produces Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Neutral stimulus (NS) with UCS becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) associated with Unconditioned Response (UCR) to create Conditioned Response (CR)

• Originally Pavlov was looking at dogs digestion.
• Before pairing –
• UCS (food) > UCR (salivating) > NS (bell)
• Pairing –
• NS (bell) + UCS (food) > USR (salivating)
• After pairing –
• CS (bell) > CR (salivating)

• Stimuli: Albert was exposed to stimuli including a white rat, rabbit, masks, and burning newspapers without showing fear.
• Conditioning: Watson and Rayner then paired the presence of a white rat with a loud noise (striking a metal pipe with a hammer) which naturally frightened Albert.
• Result: After several pairings, Albert began to associate the white rat with the loud noise and showed signs of fear towards the rat even without the noise.
• Generalization: Albert's fear also generalized to other similar objects, like furry toys and even a Santa Claus mask.

Peter’s conditioned fear of white rats was generalised to other objects. He was shown a rabbit, which he was more afraid of, so this was used to decondition Peter. He had daily play sessions with 3 children and the rabbit which the other children did not fear. Social learning, classical conditioning and new situations were used to get Peter closer to the rabbit. Eventually he associates the rabbit with relaxation and is deconditioned.

Based on the "Law of Effect", actions that have a pleasurable outcome will be repeated. Behaviours have consequences. Consequences lead to changes in behaviour. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

Consequences can be reinforced or punished:

Positive Reinforcement – rewarded for behaviour, strengthens behaviour.

Negative Reinforcement – avoiding something unpleasant, strengthens behaviour.

Punishment – behaviour results in something unpleasant, weakens behaviour.

Types of reinforcers:

Primary reinforcers – food, drink, sex

Secondary reinforcers – money, gifts, grades

Thorndike's theory of learning emphasizes the significance of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour. Behaviour followed by a positive consequence is more likely to occur, while behaviour followed by a negative consequence is less likely to be repeated.

The Skinner Box contained:​

• Levers, food dispensers, lights, electrical grid​
• The rats could press the levers to get food rewards (positive)​
• The rats could get punished with electrical shocks (negative)​

Continuous reinforcement – reward is provided every single time after the desired behaviour.

Fixed interval – reward after a set number of behaviours.

Variable interval– reward turns up but not sure when.

Fixed ratio – reward turns up but not sure when.

Variable ratio – rewards dispensed randomly, after a changing number of behaviours.

Primary reinforcer – food, drink, sex (satisfies an instinctive desire)

Secondary reinforcer – money, gift card, grades, gift (have value but not for survival)

Bandura:  Learning occurs indirectly​

Model displays behaviour:​

Observer observes models behaviour​

Observer learns from model’s behaviour​

Observer imitates models behaviour when appropriate - but before this can occur, there is some thought prior to imitation.​

If the observer sees the model receiving a reinforcement (called vicarious reinforcement) and they do not receive the reward themselves, but they see someone else get it; the observer is likely to imitate the model’s behaviour.  The observer has learned the consequences of a behaviour vicariously, e.g. a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behaviour is more likely to repeat that behaviour herself.

We do not automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it.​ There is some thought prior to imitation - this is called mediational processes. ​The 4 mediating processes are: Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation.​

Strenghts & Limitations​

• The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behaviour should be imitated or not.​
• This approach can successfully explain the initiation of certain behaviours​​
• Learning theory is not a full explanation for all behaviour.  This is particularly the case when there is no apparent role model in the person’s life to imitate for a given behaviour.​​
• The model is over-emphasising the importance of environmental factors at the expense of biological and internal psychological factors. This approach therefore finds it difficult to explain behaviours and disorders with clear biological elements like schizophrenia.

Flooding (also known as implosion therapy) is a type of exposure therapy that works by exposing the patient directly to their worst fears. Thrown in at the deep end. The technique is based on the principle of extinction, which suggests that when a person is exposed to a feared stimulus repeatedly and for a prolonged period without any negative consequences occurring, their fear response will diminish.

Systematic desensitization is a type of exposure therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning. It involves gradually exposing the individual to the feared object or situation in a controlled and relaxed environment. The process combines relaxation techniques with a hierarchical exposure to the anxiety-causing stimulus, allowing the individual to confront and reduce their fear without an anxiety response gradually.

Behavior modification uses various motivational techniques to eliminate behavior you don’t want to see or encourage behavior you do want to see. For example, you can use positive reinforcement, like praise, to encourage behavior you want. Alternatively, you can use negative reinforcement, like nagging, to eliminate behavior you don’t want.

Shaping is a form of conditioning that leads subjects, often animals who are involved in experiments, to complete an operant behavior. This process is also known as “approximation conditioning.” Why? Psychologists reinforce successive approximations in order to reach the targeted, operant behavior.