Research Methods
0.0 / 5
- Created by: ash8642
- Created on: 21-04-19 20:35
Experimental Method
Experimental Method
- Aims - the purpose of the investigation
- Hypothese - the formulation of a testable statement
- Directional or non-directional - identifying a difference/correlation or not; one-tailed and two-tailed predictions
Variables
- IVs and DVs - IV is manipulated, DV is measured
- Levels of the IV - experimental and control conditions
- Operationalisation - 'de-fuzzying' variables
1 of 22
Control of Variables
- Extraneous variables - nuisance variables but randomly distributed
- Confounding variables - vary systematically with the IV
- Demand characteristics - participants second guess the aims and alter their behaviour
- Investigator effects - unconscious influence of the researcher on the research situation
- Randomisation - use of chance to reduce the researcher's influence
- Standardisation - ensuring all participants are subject to the same experience
2 of 22
Experimental Design
Type of Design
- Independent groups - participants in each condition of an experiment are different
- Repeated measures - all participants take part in all conditions
- Matched pairs - similar participants are put in pairs and allocated different experimental conditions
Evaluation
- Independent groups
- Less economical, no order effects, participant variables not controlled
- Repeated measures
- Order effects, demand characteristics, no participant variable problems, more economical
- Matched pairs
- No order effects, cannot match participants exactly, time-consuming
3 of 22
Types of Experiments
Types of Experiments
- Lab - IV is maniplulated in a controlled setting
- Field - IV is manipulated in a natural setting
- Natural - IV has been manipulated naturally, effect on DV is recorded
- Quasi - IV based on existing difference between people, effect on DV is recorded
Evaluation
- Lab - high internal validity, low external validity, casue + effect, replication, demand characteristics
- Field - lower internal validity, higher external validity, ethical issues
- Natural - low internal validity, high external validity, unique research, opportunities may be rare
- Quasi - low internal validity, high external validity
4 of 22
Sampling
Populations and Sampling
- Random - all memebers of the population have an equal chance of selection
- Systematic - selecting every nth person from a sampling frame
- Stratified - sample reflects the proportions of people within different population strata
- Opportunity - choosing whoever is available
- Volunteer - participants 'self-select'
Evaluation
- Random - no researcher bias, time-consuming, may end up with biased sample
- Systematic - no researcher bias, usually fairly representative, may end up with biased sample
- Stratified - no researcher bias, representative, cannot account for all sub-groups
- Opportunity - convenient, researcher bias, unrepresentative
- Volunteer - less time-consuming, attracts a certain profile of person
5 of 22
Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
- Informed consent - advising participants of what is involved; may reveal research aims
- Deception - telling the truth
- Protection from harm - minimising psychological and physical risk
- Privacy and confidentiality - protecting personal data
Evaluation
- Informed consent
- Get permission, presumptive/prior general/retrospective consent
- Deception/protection from harm
- Debriefing
- Privacy and confidentiality
- Maintaining anonymity, use numbers not names
6 of 22
Observational Techniques
Types of Observations
- Naturalistic - behaviour observed where it would normally occur; no control over variables
- Controlled - some control over environment, including manipulation of variables to observe effects
- Covert + overt - observing participants with or without their knowledge
- Participant + non-participant - to join the group or remain an outsider
Evaluation
- Naturalistic - low internal validity, high external validity
- Controlled - low internal validity, high external validity
- Covert + overt - Covert: low participant reactivity, ethically questionable; Overt: behaviour may be affected
- Participant + non-participant - Participant: increased external validity, may 'go native'; Non-participant: more objectivity
7 of 22
Pilot Studies
Research Techniques
- Pilot studies - checking procedures and materials; making modifications
- Single blind - participants aren't made aware of research aims until the end
- Double blind - neither participants nor the individuals conducting the research know the aim beforehand
- Controlled group/condition - used as a comparison
8 of 22
Observational Design
Designing Observations
- Unstructured/structured - researcher records everything (unstructured) or controls what is recorded (structured)
- Behavioural categories - target behaviours broken down into observable components
- Sampling methods - continuous; event sampling; time sampling
Evaluation
- Unstructured/structured
- Unstructured: more information but may be too much, qualitative data harder to analyse; Structured: may miss behaviours
- Behavioural categories
- Must be observable, avoid dustbin category, no overlap
- Sampling methods
- Event: useful for infrequent behaviour, may miss complexity; Time: less effort but may not represent whole behaviour
9 of 22
Self-Report Techniques
Questionnaires
- Pre-set list of written questions
- Closed/open questions - fixed number of answers or not
Evaluation
- Questionnaires
- Can distribute to many people
- Easy to analyse
- Social desirability bias
- Acquiescence bias
- Closed/open questions
- Produces qualititative or quantitative data
- Affected ease of analysis
10 of 22
Self-Report Techniques
Interviews
- Structured - pre-set questions in a fixed order
- Unstructured - no set formula, just a general topic; questions developed based on responses
- Semi-structured - pre-set questions with flexibility to ask follow-ups
Evaluation
- Structured
- Similar to questionnaires but fewer respondents
- Unstructured
- More flexibility
- Analysis more difficult
- Social desirability bias may be reduced by rapport
- Semi-structured
- Advantages of both structured and unstructured
11 of 22
Self-Report Design
Designing Self-Report
- Questionnaires - Likert scale, rating scale, fixed choice option
- Interviews - standardised interview schedule to avoid interviewer bias; awareness of ethical issues
Writing Good Questions
- Overuse of jargon - don't be too technical
- Emotive language and leading questions - replace 'loaded' words and phrases with neutral ones
- Double-barrelled questions and double negatives - ask one question only in a clear way
12 of 22
Correlations
Correlations
- Types of correlation - positive, negative, and zero/null
- No IV or DV
- No manipulation of variables
Evaluation
- Strengths
- Useful premliminary tool
- Quick and economical to carry out, using secondary data
- Limitations
- Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
- Third variable problem (intervening variable)
- Misuse and misinterpretation
13 of 22
Data Analysis: Kinds of Data
Qualitative and Quantitative
- Qualitiative - written, non-numerical description of the participants' thoughts, feelings, opinions
- Quantitative - expressed numerically rather than in words
Evaluation
- Qualitative
- Rich in detail
- Greater external validity
- Difficult to analyse
- Conclusions may be subjective
- Quantitative
- Easy to analyse
- Less biased
- Narrow in scope
14 of 22
Data Analysis: Kinds of Data
Primary and Secondary Data
- Primary - collected first hand from participants for the purpose of the investigation
- Secondary - collected and analysed by someone other than the researcher
Evaluation
- Primary
- High validity
- Targets relevent information
- Time and effort
- Secondary
- Inexpensive and easy to access
- Variation in the quality
- Outdated and incomplete
15 of 22
Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
- Mean - add them all up and divide by the number
- Median - the middle value
- Mode - most frequently occurring
Evaluation
- Mean
- Most sensitive and representative
- Easily distrorted
- Median
- Not affected by extreme values
- Less sensitive than the mean
- Mode
- Easy to calculate
- Crude, unrepresentative
16 of 22
Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Dispersion
- Range - subtract the lowest from the highest and add 1
- Standard deviation - measures how much scores deviate from the mean
Evaluation
- Range
- Easy to calculate
- May be unrepresentative of the data set
- Standard deviation
- Much more precise than the range
- Can be distorted by extreme values
17 of 22
Data Analysis: Graphs
Presentative and Display of Quantitative Data
- Tables - raw scores are converted to descriptive statistics and summarised in a table
- Bar charts - discrete categorical data represented for clear comparison; frequency of each category is the height of the bar
- Scattergrams - shows the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables
Distributions
- Normal distributiion - bell curve; mean, median, and mode at the same point; tail never touches zero
- Skewed distribution - negative skew leans right; positive skew leans left
18 of 22
Mathematical Content
Mathematical Content
- Percentages and fractions - convert one to the other, and to decimals
- Decimals - appropriate number of significant figures
- Ratios - part-to-whole; part-to-part
- Mathematical symbols - =, >, <, >>, <<,
19 of 22
Introduction to Statistical Testing
Statistical Testing
- Significance - results have not occurred by chance
- Probability - 5% significance level; more stringent 1% level
- Critical value - comparison with calculated value to determine significance
Sign Test
- Criteria
- Testing for difference
- Nominal data
- Repeated measures
- Steps
- Convert to nominal data
- Add up pluses and minuses
- S = less frequent sign
- Compare calculated value of S with critical value
20 of 22
Peer Review
Peer Review
- Funding - approval of project proposals
- Validation - quality check
- Improvements - minor revisions or rejection of report
Evaluation
- Anonymity
- May permit unjustified criticisms by rivals
- Publication bias
- File drawer problem, creates false impression of current knowledge
- Burying ground-breaking research
- Maintains status'quo
21 of 22
Psychology and the Economy
Examples
- Attachment research
- Equal care from mother and father
- Means more effective contribution to economy
- Mental health
- Absenteeism due to moderate mental health (e.g. depression) issues costs the economy
22 of 22
Similar Psychology resources:
1.0 / 5 based on 4 ratings
4.5 / 5 based on 6 ratings
2.0 / 5 based on 1 rating
0.0 / 5
5.0 / 5 based on 1 rating
0.0 / 5
3.0 / 5 based on 1 rating
2.0 / 5 based on 5 ratings
3.0 / 5 based on 1 rating
4.0 / 5 based on 1 rating
Comments
No comments have yet been made