Sociology

Burnstein distinguishes between elaborated and restricted speech codes (restricted = working class AND elaborated = middle class). The elaborated code is the one used in education by teachers, exams, textbooks, university interviewers etc. This gives the middle class an educational advantage.

Argues that parents' own education is the most important factor affecting children's achievement. Since middle-class parents tend to be better educated, their children gain an advantage. 

Argues that parents' own education is the most important factor affecting children's achievement. Since middle-class parents tend to be better educated, their children gain an advantage. 

Found working class students more debt averse. They saw more costs than benefits in going to university (e.g. tuition fees) and this influenced their decisions. When at university, they receive less financial support from their families. 

Marxists such as Bourdieu argue that middle class pupils are more successful than working class pupils because their parents possess more capital or assets. This capital comes in two forms: 
* Economic Capital- The wealth that middle class families own
* Cultural Capital- The attitudes, values, skills, knowledge etc of middle class.

Becker argues that teachers label middle class children as 'ideal pupils' and prefer to teach them than working class children. 

Describes streaming as 'differentiation' - a way of separating the sheep from the goats and then educating them differently. Streaming often creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Uses Bourdieu's concept of habitus (social class's habitual ways of thinking, being and acting) to understand the relationship between pupil's working class identities and underachievement 

Ingram found 'fitting in' was a problem for working class grammar school boys. They experienced a tension between their neighbourhood's habitus and that of their middle-class school. 

Found that even successful working class girls faced hidden barriers. They felt their identity would not 'fit in' with the habitus of elite universities. 

Argues that Black Caribbean culture is less resistant to racism because of the experience of slavery. As a result, many black pupils have low self esteem and under achieve.