The role of the united nations in post cold-war environment
- The UN up to 1988
- The UN and the end of the Cold War
- The UN in action during the 1990's
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- Created by: Tom
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The UN up to 1988
- established October 1945 - compromised of 51 members
- UN found itself called upon for numerous peacekeeping operations
- cold war constrained UN as a peacekeeping force
- security council members could veto - used frequently to reflect superpower interests
- only 12 UN interventions 1948-78 veto primary cause of inaction
- cold war paralysed UN interventionism. Peacekeeping only undertaken with unanimous voting
- UN peacekeeping forces could not take sides
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The Un and the end of the cold war
- 1988 - Gorbachev announced new Soviet relationship with U.N
- UN peacekeeping offered the SU a way out of a 'bleeding wound' in Afghanistan
- triggered shift in US policy - Reagan praised UN as an international peacekeeper
- announced at general Assembly - "the Unite Nations has the opportunity to live and breathe and work as never before"
- S.U and U.S agreed to pay their debts to UN to enable it to expand
- Britain and France recognised they could maintain status and influence through UN's revival as international peacekeeper
- US accepted it was more productive to use the UN as basis of international cooperation - rather than using its own force
- clear that UN was facing different challenges in post cold-war era than it had in creation in 1945
- true rebirth of post cold-war UN began with 1991 Gulf War
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UN involvement in 1991 Gulf War
- Iraq invaded oil rich neighbour, Kuwait, August 1991 - UN security council passed 12 resolutions aimed at forcing Iraq to withdraw
- Resolution 678 allowed member states to use 'all necessary means' to remove Iraq from kuwait
- Iraq failure to withdraw by 15h January 1991 led to 28 power coalition being formed - removal of Iraq from kuwait. Coalition forces also bombed iraq itself.
- raised the issue that coalition forces dominated by US forces
- critics argue US created anti-Iraq coalition to serve US interests. UN was a tool to promote US influence
- US used political + economic power in Security Council to ensure its own Persian Gulf agenda ensured
- US promised financial packages to number of developing countries. Political concessions to S.U and China
- US led coalition forces in Kuwait - they determined what strategic aims and methods of force would be used in iraq. UN Security Council merely bystander.
- UN enforcement in Persian Gulf was first in post cold-war era - revealed limited power of Security Council in face of US determination to implement own regional agenda.
- UN role in Persian Gulf more than peacekeeping - under direction of US driven intervention, UN moved toward enforcement and away from peacekeeping
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UN involvement in 1991 Gulf War
- New UN role also emerged in international relations and international peacekeeping
- end of cold war became clear UN faced greater challenges than could be met by traditional peacekeeping. Became clear mainly in 1990s
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Cambodia, 1992-3
- Feb 1992 - Security Council established United Nations Transition Authority in Cambodia(UNTAC) - produce a 'just and durable settlement to the Cambodian conflict' based on free elections
- achieved this goal within 18 months - needed to disarm/defeat Khmer Rouge guerillas and disarm government forces
- May 1993 - UN succeeded in managing national elections. Once elections held UN began to withdraw
- 10 years after UN withdrawal Cambodia developed slowly as liberated democracy
- greater openness came and tolerance to criticism
- Cambodia remained fundamentally unstable after UN left
- problem for Un after Cold War was that superpowers no longer influenced member states. Also reduced superpower involvement
- in Cambodia, UN was effective in establishing framework for democracy and stability, but lack of superpower influence undermined chances of change being long term.
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Somalia, 1992-5
- superpower interest in Somalia faded after cold war
- Somalian position on horn of Africa of vital importance to U.S when S.U backed revolutionary regime in Ethiopia during 1970's and 80's. US then backed Somali regime
- by 1991 US backed regime had collapsed - all form of gov. ceased to exist - chaos became endemic. Ruled by warlords. 1/3 pop faced death from starvation
- August 1992 Security Council established UN Operations in Somalia(UNOSOM) - aimed to provide humanitarian aid
- Security Council set up United Task Force(UNITAF) to be under US control
- Americans labelled Operation Restore Hope - succeeded in opening way for aid but didn't tsckle issue of anarchy
- May 1993 - Security Council authorised UNOSOM II - would be under UN control
- UN forces clashed with Warlord Mohammed Aidid - very violent - part of conflict = 'black hawk down'
- UN operation faced 2 problems: reluctant of US to be involved and the operation shifting from humanitarian aid to nation building
- May 1994 - Clinton reversed US attitudes to multilateralism. US participation was crucical, as was withdrawal
- UN forces left Somalia in March 1995. operation turned in to enforcement rather than peacekeeping. Somalia did not consent to Un intervention
- UN faced constant military opposition. Made peacekeeping impossible
- 2003 - Somalia remained without gov.
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former Yugoslavia, 1992-5
- UN failed in intervention of former Yugoslavia
- International community faced a contradiction. Committed to both sanctity of state frontiers and right of self determination and protecting rights of ethnic minority
- UN usually responded to a host state(to help them). Not the case in former Yugoslavia
- should intervention aim to lessen humanitarian suffering or should it protect the sanctity of former frontiers?
- in Yugoslavia the frontier issue was enforcement issue
- Feb 1992 - UN established UN Protection Force(UNPROFOR) -"create the conditions of peace and security required for the overall settlement of the..crisis"
- August - mandate extended to deliver humanitarian aid and empowered to 'use all means necessary' to achieve aims
- mandate widened to create safe areas for refugees in Bosnia and using NATO to enforce sanctions
- cooperation with NATO first of a kind for UN
- July 1995 - 7,500 Bosnian Muslim men and boys massacred in Srebrenica by Bosnian Serbs
- little evidence of UN enforcement action against these groups
- November 1995 - Dayton peace Accords established. Ended UN's peacekeeping role in Bosnia + Croatia. Introduced NATO Implementation Force(IFOR) - among force of 60,000 were 20,000 US
- enforcement role of UN became more prominent and urgent in former Yugoslavia than any other previous involvement
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Rwanda, 1993-6
- April-June 1994 - 800,000 citizens of African state Rwanda murdered
- victims mainly member of Tutsi tribe, attacked by majority Hutu tribe after their leader/president's airplane shot down over Kilagi airport 6th April 1994
- further 2 million fled and 2 million refugees
- May 1994 - UN force had already been inRwanda for 8 months. Role = facilitate Arusha Peace Accords between Hutus and Tutsis - widely believed UN mission was poorly prepared
- UN response = indecisive and inadequate - no swift response or international pressure
- UN reduced military forces after attacks against Belgian forces
- June-August 1994 - French led Operation Turquoise - designed to stabilise Sotuh Western parts of country. French used presence to protect Hutu allies
- July-August - US set up Operation Support Hope. Some humanitarian aid
- UN failed to establish secure environment in Rwanda
- many feared involvement may lead to hopeless long term commitment
- humanitarian aid reached Rwanda but only after genocide complete
- UN role in Rwanda seen as one of greatest failures
- There was a UN force during the genocide, but it was not equipped or mandated to deal with genocide
- Kofi Anan UN Secretary General - ignored calls in April 1994 from force commander, Dallaire, for more proactive role in stemming the growing genocide
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Kosovo, 1999
- 1990's showed UN traditional approach becoming irrelevant
- UN did not intervene in Kosovo until ceasefire established
- some historians - UN security council largely ignored by western powers who used NATO to fulfil interventionist aims
- undermined authority + credibility of Security Council + U.N
- 1999 - Serbia began ethnic cleansing against Kosovan Albanians conducted by Serbian+Yugoslav army
- Yugoslav president Milosevic constantly showed disregard for international opinion over Kosovo
- January 1999 - U.S moving from diplomacy to military solution. Kofi Anan same position.
- diplomacy not immediately abandoned
- Feb 1999 - Britain, France, US, Germany, Italy, Russia attempted to broker settlement between Yugoslavia and Albanian Kosovan delegation
- Milosevic unwillingness to compromise caused talks to collapse
- March - NATO forces began 77 day bombardment of Serbian targets. Breach of international law as not given go ahead by UN Security Council
- NATO secretary general, Solana, said it was justified in human terms and therefore legitimate
- China + Russia saw NATO action as illegal. UN didn't care
- Secretary general emphasised that Serbs stepped up ethnic cleansing. 1.8m ethnic Albanians displaced
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Kosovo, 1999
- 3rd June - Milosevic agreed to end violence in Kosovo and withdraw all Serb forces
- 10th June - Security Council adopted Resolution 1244 - NATO troops maintain security. UN mission in Kosovo(UNMIK) was to have authority over people and territory of Kosovo and its civil administration
- UNMIK in charge of establishing self-government in Kosovo
- resolution faced many issues
- 800,000 refugees need repatriation
- Serbians had destroying housing/hospitals/schools etc
- UNMIK responsible for turning devastated Kosovo in to some degree of normality
- security = responsibility of NATO, but no clear division between UN and NATO
- UN policies i.e privatisation were poorly organised and implemented
- ethnic Albanian's wanted independence but UN mandate required respect for Yugoslav sovereignity
- UN simply out of its depth in Yugoslavia
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East Timor, 1999-2002
- 1975 - Indonesia invaded East Timor
- after long time indonesians agreed to hold referendum on future of territory
- agreed it was to take placed August 1999 - UN secretary General responsible for organisation
- Issue = whether people of East Timor wqould accept or reject autonomous status within Republic of Indonesia
- June 1999 - UN established UNAMET - UN Mission In East Timor - conduct consultation. 30th August - 78.5% of people voted for independence
- result was extensive violence - 500,000 East Timonese forced from homes
- September - Indonesia accepted UN force authorised to 'take all necessary measures' to achieve tasks. Restore peace in east Timor. protect and support UNAMET , facilitate humanitarian assistance
- with violence subdued by UN force+UNAMET - UN was able to establish Transitional Administration in East Timor(UNTAET), October 1999 - goal was to establish and maintain law and order, prepare state fro self-government and sustainable development
- faced numerous problems - UN was offering limited and confused consultation to timorese people about their future
- UNTAET succeeded in organising elections and paved way for independence
- 20th may 2002 - East timor declared independent. UNTAET replaced by UN Mission of Support in East timor - remained scaled down peacekeeping force until 2004
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East Timor, 1999-2002
- elections a success and carrier out peacefully
- UN involvement represented steep learning curve - one that could be repeated in future UN operations which involve transtions to independence.
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Sierra Leone, 1999-present
- civil war erupted, March 1991
- July 1998 - Security Council established UN Observer Mission in Sierra Leone.
- monitor economic + military situation in country
- January 1999 - rebel forces approached capital, freetown,. UN observer mission evacuated
- October 1999 - UN implemented UN mission in Sierra Leone(UNAMSIL) - up to 17,500 UN soldiers - many Nigerian + British
- UN forces much more forceful against warring parties
- mission in Sierra Leone declared complete + succesful in 2005
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impact of 9/11 attacks: Iraq
- security council recognised the inherent right of individual or collective self defence - introduced resolution 1368
- US declared military campaign in Afghanistan and focused on Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. US sought legitimacy for its actions through UN
- late 2002 Bush's admin becoming anxious to get Security Council to accept that only military action was possible - diplomacy would not work
- US faced growing lack of support from UN members
- Only Britian+Spain willing to back US demands for military action against Iraq
- security council endorsed US military attacks against Taliban. France + Russia not convinced US had shown link between Iraq and terrorism
- opponents of UN not willing to accept Buish Doctrine
- the basis of US international relations in the new age of aggressive anti-American terrorism was to be founded upon the idea that Washington could decided what government, through its percieved links with terrorism, would be targetted.
- security council set up United Nations Monitoring, verification and Inspection Commission(UNMOVIC)
- US placed little faith in these agencies. Any lengthy diplomacy would reive US military power in iraq
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impact of 9/11 attacks: Iraq
- Washington wanted to be free to use its power against any state that threatened US interests
- perception of a threat was sufficient - no need to prove link
- US commitement to Bush Doctrine contrasted UN's commitment to regulate force through international agreement
- US commitment to fighting terrorism deeply divided UN
- Iraq did not present a danger to US nor was it closely linked to those who did.
- US was always most important state in UN
- start of 21st century growing opposition to US unilateralism within UN
- US invasion of Iraq led to increase of opposition
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Darfur, 2003-4
- fighting between gov. forces and rebels from Sudanese Liberation Army made thousands refugees
- 2004 - 100,000 refugees + million others displaced
- May 2004 - Security Council called Sudanese government to disarm Arab military groups - Janjaweed. Sudanese authorities agreed.
- security council due to take more robust action but Russia+China abstained vote
- China + Russia had economic interests in Sudan so opposed any UN enforcement there
- even US had self-interest there and did nothing to push for UN intervention - US didn't want to undermine Sudanese cooperation against terrorism
- Islamic states not willing to pressure other islamic states
- Darfur Crisis showed lack of will to stop humanitarian crisis in Sudan. - no attempt to stop it in the first place
- growing recognition within Security Council that humanitarian crisis were threats to international peace and security
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