1. Theories of Religion

Substantive definitions

• Focus on content / substance; exclusive; Western bias
• Weber: "Religion is a belief in superior or supernatral power that is above nature & cannot be explained scientifically"

Functional definitions

• Focus on social / psychological functions; inclusive
• Too broad; e.g. football chanting could be considered to be a religion

Constructionist definitions

• Focus on individuals; not universal; do not assume belief in God or performance of similar functions
• Interested in how definitions are constructed & challenged e.g. Scientology is seen as a religion by its followers, but not by governments

Durkheim: The collective conscience & cognitive functions of religion

• Used an earlier study of the Arunta Tribe & totemism
• The collective conscience: Religious shared rituals perform reinforce the collective conscience & maintain social integration
• Cognitive functions: Religion provides the concepts & categories needed to understand the world & communicate with others

Malinowski: Psychological functions

• Where the outcome is important but uncertain: Trobriand Islanders & "canoe magic"
• At times of life crises

Parsons: Values & Meaning

• Creates & legitimates society's norms & values by sacrilising them
• Primary source of meaning & answering ultimate questions

Bellah: Civil Religion

• A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself
• USA - faith in Americanism; functional alternative to religion
• Integrates society in a way that individual religions cannot

Evaluation of Functionalism

• Ignores negative aspects (e.g. oppression)
• Ignores religion as a source of conflict (e.g. N.Ireland)
• Durkheim's theory explains integration within communities, but nit the conflicts between them
• Determinism
• Rose-tinted glasses

1. Religion as ideology

• Ideological state apparatus
• False consciousness
• Lenin: Religion is "spiritual gin" that confuses the w/c to keep them in their place

2. Religion & alienation

• Marx: "Religion is the opium of the people" - Dulls the pain of exploitation; offers reward in the afterlife, but not solution for the present; legitimates the suffering of the poor & the privileges of the rich

Evaluation

• Ignores positive functions e.g. Neo-Marxists: religion can assist the development of a class consciousness
• Althusser: alienation is unscientific
• Religion does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population e.g. in pre-capitalist society, Christianity had little impact on the peasantry
• Determinism

• Religious institutions are patriarchal
• Religious beliefs legitimate women's subordination

Evidence of Patriarchy

• Religious organisations are usually male-dominated
• Places of worship often segregate the sexes & marginalise women in acts of worship
• Sacred texts largely feature male Gods / prophets & anti-female stereotypes
• Religious laws & customs often give fewer rights to women e.g. divorce & contraception

Evaluation:

• This was not always the case - early religion placed women at the centre.
• El Saadawi: Religion may be used to oppress women, but it is not a direct cause of their subordination

Religious forms of Feminism

• Woodhead: Women use religion to gain freedom & respect
• Status & respect at home e.g. Pentecostalism & discouragement of macho behaviour
• Liberal Protestant organisations e.g. 1/5 CofE priests are female