biology
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- Created by: Mmarsden123
- Created on: 14-03-21 17:54
monomer +polymers of...
1) carbohydrates
2) proteins
3) nucleic acids
1) carbohydrates
2) proteins
3) nucleic acids
carbohydrate= monosaccharide, polysaccharid
proteins= amino acids, polypeptide
nucleic acid= nucleotides, DNA/RNA
proteins= amino acids, polypeptide
nucleic acid= nucleotides, DNA/RNA
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properties of water
1|) liquid at room temp- provide habitats
2) density- ice is less dense than water
3) solvent- transportation of molecules
4)cohesion/surface tension- insects can walk on water
5) high SHC- stable environment
6) high latent heat for vaporisation- sweat to
2) density- ice is less dense than water
3) solvent- transportation of molecules
4)cohesion/surface tension- insects can walk on water
5) high SHC- stable environment
6) high latent heat for vaporisation- sweat to
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structure + functions of carbohydrates
structure- C, H, O and glycosidic bonds formed between 2 monosaccharides via hydrolysis
functions-
1) source of energy (glucose)
2) store of energy (starch+glycogen)
3) structural units (cellulose in plants)
functions-
1) source of energy (glucose)
2) store of energy (starch+glycogen)
3) structural units (cellulose in plants)
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monosaccharides + hexose, pentose and triose sugars
monosaccharides= simplest carbohydrate
soluble in water
large no. carbon-hydrogen bonds
hexose= 6 carbon atoms- glucose- ring/cyclic form
pentose= 5 carbon atoms- ribose- ring/cyclic form
triose=3 carbon atoms- straight chains
soluble in water
large no. carbon-hydrogen bonds
hexose= 6 carbon atoms- glucose- ring/cyclic form
pentose= 5 carbon atoms- ribose- ring/cyclic form
triose=3 carbon atoms- straight chains
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disaccharides
made when 2 monosaccharides are joined together
Aglucose+Aglucose= maltose
Aglucose+fructose= sucrose
Bglucose+Aglucose= lactose
Bglucose+Bglucose= cellobiose
condensation reaction ,', glycosidic bond formed + produces water
Aglucose+Aglucose= maltose
Aglucose+fructose= sucrose
Bglucose+Aglucose= lactose
Bglucose+Bglucose= cellobiose
condensation reaction ,', glycosidic bond formed + produces water
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why are polysaccharides good energy stores
polysaccharide= polymers of monosaccharides
1)glycogen+starch compact- less space taken
2)contain glucose molecules- can be broken down (hydrolysis) for respiration
3)less soluble in water= doesnt effect water potential
1)glycogen+starch compact- less space taken
2)contain glucose molecules- can be broken down (hydrolysis) for respiration
3)less soluble in water= doesnt effect water potential
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types of polysaccharides + their structure
amylose (plants)= long chain of glycosidic bonds 1-4, coils into spiral shape (h bonds), hydroxyl group on inside (lowers solubility)
amylopectin (plants)= glycosidic bonds 1-4, branches formed from 1-6 glycosidic bonds, spiral shape
glycogen (animals)= g
amylopectin (plants)= glycosidic bonds 1-4, branches formed from 1-6 glycosidic bonds, spiral shape
glycogen (animals)= g
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cellulose as a structural unit
found in cell walls
tough, insoluble and fibrous
long chains of Bglucose via condensation reaction
straight chains, every other one is rotated 180*
difficult to digest
macrofibrils+microfibrils have high tensile strength
tough, insoluble and fibrous
long chains of Bglucose via condensation reaction
straight chains, every other one is rotated 180*
difficult to digest
macrofibrils+microfibrils have high tensile strength
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structure + function of triglycerides
triglycerides= made up of glycerol and fatty acids
saturated- no C=C bonds
unsaturated- C=C bonds ,', fewer H
branched due to kinks in the chain
functions=
1) energy source
2)energy store
3) insulation
4) protection
saturated- no C=C bonds
unsaturated- C=C bonds ,', fewer H
branched due to kinks in the chain
functions=
1) energy source
2)energy store
3) insulation
4) protection
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structure + function of phospholipids
phospholipids= made up of a glycerol molecule, 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate group
one chain is saturated, the other is unsaturated
make up the phospholipid bilayer= hydrophilic phosphate heads point out + hydrophobic fatty acid tails point inward
one chain is saturated, the other is unsaturated
make up the phospholipid bilayer= hydrophilic phosphate heads point out + hydrophobic fatty acid tails point inward
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structure of amino acids
amino acid= made up of 4 elements- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
amino group, R group + carboxyl group
joined together by covalent peptide bonds
can act as buffers by resisting large changes in pH
amino group, R group + carboxyl group
joined together by covalent peptide bonds
can act as buffers by resisting large changes in pH
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structure sequence of proteins
1) primary= sequence of amino acids found within a molecule
2) secondary= coiling/folding due to hydrogen bonds ,', forms beta pleated sheets
3) tertiary= ionic+disulphide bonds, spherical (globular), supercoiled (fibrous)
4) quaternary= multiple poly
2) secondary= coiling/folding due to hydrogen bonds ,', forms beta pleated sheets
3) tertiary= ionic+disulphide bonds, spherical (globular), supercoiled (fibrous)
4) quaternary= multiple poly
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types of bonds
hydrogen= between H and negative atoms, hydroxyl+carboxyl groups, tertiary+quaternary protein structure
ionic= between carboxyl+amino groups, ionise into NH3*+COO-
disulphide link= between R groups of 2 cysteines, strong covalent bonds
hydrophobic+hydroph
ionic= between carboxyl+amino groups, ionise into NH3*+COO-
disulphide link= between R groups of 2 cysteines, strong covalent bonds
hydrophobic+hydroph
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globular proteins
globular= spherical in shape + soluble in water
1) haemoglobin- 4 polypeptide chains, have a prosthetic group (iron in each of the 4 ahem groups)
2) insulin- 2 polypeptide chains (A chain- alpha helix + B chain- beta pleated sheets)
3) insulin
1) haemoglobin- 4 polypeptide chains, have a prosthetic group (iron in each of the 4 ahem groups)
2) insulin- 2 polypeptide chains (A chain- alpha helix + B chain- beta pleated sheets)
3) insulin
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fibrous proteins
fribrous= long + thin in structure, soluble in water
1) collagen- mechanical strength, tendons, cartilage, artery walls
2) elastin- cross-linking + coiling makes it extensible, skin, lungs, bladder
3) keratin- many disulphide bridges+hydrogen bonds, very
1) collagen- mechanical strength, tendons, cartilage, artery walls
2) elastin- cross-linking + coiling makes it extensible, skin, lungs, bladder
3) keratin- many disulphide bridges+hydrogen bonds, very
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inorganic ions
(cations + anions)
(cations + anions)
cations (+)
1) sodium- osmotic pressure, muscle contraction
2) hydrogen- photosynthesis
3) calcium- teeth, membrane impermeability
4) potassium- active transport, water+pH levels
anions (-)
1) phosphate- phospholipids, plant root growth
2)chloride- urine
1) sodium- osmotic pressure, muscle contraction
2) hydrogen- photosynthesis
3) calcium- teeth, membrane impermeability
4) potassium- active transport, water+pH levels
anions (-)
1) phosphate- phospholipids, plant root growth
2)chloride- urine
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structure + functions of nucleotides
structure= 5 carbon sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base (A+T,G+C)
2 anti-parallel polynucleotide strands
covalent bonds between sugar+phosphate
phosphodiester bonds between polynucleotides
function
1) components of coenzymes
2) form monomers of nuclei
2 anti-parallel polynucleotide strands
covalent bonds between sugar+phosphate
phosphodiester bonds between polynucleotides
function
1) components of coenzymes
2) form monomers of nuclei
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hydrogen bonds in the bases
Adenine+Thymine= 2 hydrogen bonds
Guanine+Cytosine= 3 hydrogen bonds
purine molecules- 2 rings (Adenine+Guanine)
pyrimidine molecules- 1 ring (Thymine+Cytosine)
pyrimidine always pairs with purine to give equal sized rings on the DNA ladder
Guanine+Cytosine= 3 hydrogen bonds
purine molecules- 2 rings (Adenine+Guanine)
pyrimidine molecules- 1 ring (Thymine+Cytosine)
pyrimidine always pairs with purine to give equal sized rings on the DNA ladder
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anti-parallel sugar (phosphate backbones)
opposite directions of the strands based on the opposite directions of the 3rd+5th carbon molecules
5'end= phosphate group @ to 5th carbon on deoxyribose sugar
3'end= phosphate group @ 3rd carbon on deoxyribose sugar
complimentary base pairing joined by
5'end= phosphate group @ to 5th carbon on deoxyribose sugar
3'end= phosphate group @ 3rd carbon on deoxyribose sugar
complimentary base pairing joined by
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DNA in eukaryotes vs prokaryotes
eukaryotes=
1) DNA in nucleus
2) tightly wound around histones into chromosomes
3) loop of DNA without histones in mitochondria+chloroplasts
prokaryotes=
1) DNA loop within cytoplasms
2) not enclosed in nucleus
3) 'naked'- not wound round histones
1) DNA in nucleus
2) tightly wound around histones into chromosomes
3) loop of DNA without histones in mitochondria+chloroplasts
prokaryotes=
1) DNA loop within cytoplasms
2) not enclosed in nucleus
3) 'naked'- not wound round histones
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stages of DNA replication
part1
part1
during interphase, semi conservative (one old strand, one new strand)
1) DNA unwinds- double helix untwists via gyrase
2) hydrogen bonds between bases break via helicase
3) free phosphorylated nucleotides bind to exposed bases
1) DNA unwinds- double helix untwists via gyrase
2) hydrogen bonds between bases break via helicase
3) free phosphorylated nucleotides bind to exposed bases
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stages of DNA replication
part2
part2
4) polymerase catalyses addition of new nucleotide baseline 5'-3' direction, uses one strand as template
5) leading strand catalysed continuously, lagging strand in fragments to be joined via ligase
6) hydrolysis of activated nucleotides to release extra
5) leading strand catalysed continuously, lagging strand in fragments to be joined via ligase
6) hydrolysis of activated nucleotides to release extra
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stages of transcription- synthesis of polypeptides
part1
part1
making mRNA from DNA template
1) gene unwinds + unzips
2) hydrogen bonds between bases break
3) RNA polymerase catalyses temporary hydrogen bonds between RNA nucleotides + their bases- only on one DNA strand (template)
1) gene unwinds + unzips
2) hydrogen bonds between bases break
3) RNA polymerase catalyses temporary hydrogen bonds between RNA nucleotides + their bases- only on one DNA strand (template)
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stages of transcription
part2
part2
4) a length of RNA complimentary to template strand of the gene is produced ,', other strand is the coding strand
5) mRNA passes out of the nucleus and @ to a ribosome
5) mRNA passes out of the nucleus and @ to a ribosome
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stages of translation
formation of proteins at the ribosomes
1) tRNA made in nucleus
2) tRNA bring amino acid + find their place when anti-codon binds to complimentary codon via H bonds on mRNA
3) ribosome moves along mRNA and reads code
4)amino acid sequence determined by b
1) tRNA made in nucleus
2) tRNA bring amino acid + find their place when anti-codon binds to complimentary codon via H bonds on mRNA
3) ribosome moves along mRNA and reads code
4)amino acid sequence determined by b
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genetic code
1) degenerate- reduces effect of mutations
2) universal
3) non-overlapping- read from a fixed point
2) universal
3) non-overlapping- read from a fixed point
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code for polypeptides
RNA
1) sugar molecule is ribose
2) nitrogenous base is uracil (replaces thymine)
3) single-stranded polynucleotide
4)3 forms- messenger, transfer, ribosomal
1) sugar molecule is ribose
2) nitrogenous base is uracil (replaces thymine)
3) single-stranded polynucleotide
4)3 forms- messenger, transfer, ribosomal
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specialised animal tissue
1) epithelial- covers/lines free surfaces in the body (skin, blood vessels, organ walls)
2) connective- tendons, ligaments
3) cartilage- hyaline (embryonic skeleton), elastic (outer ear), fibrous (discs between vertebrae)
4) muscle- skeletal (movement),
2) connective- tendons, ligaments
3) cartilage- hyaline (embryonic skeleton), elastic (outer ear), fibrous (discs between vertebrae)
4) muscle- skeletal (movement),
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specialised plant tissues
1) epidermal- protective covering (waxy cuticle)
2) vascular- carry water/minerals + photosynthesis products (xylem+phloem)
3) meristematic- contains stem cells (roots + shoots)
2) vascular- carry water/minerals + photosynthesis products (xylem+phloem)
3) meristematic- contains stem cells (roots + shoots)
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animal organs
organ= collection of tissues working together to complete the same function (heart,brain,stomach)
organ systems= number of organs working together to carry out an overall life function
circulatory- heart+blood vessels- transport to and from cells
urinary-
organ systems= number of organs working together to carry out an overall life function
circulatory- heart+blood vessels- transport to and from cells
urinary-
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plant organs
stem- support, transportation, storage
flower- sexual reproduction
leaf- photosynthesis
root- mineral+water absorption, storage, anchorage
flower- sexual reproduction
leaf- photosynthesis
root- mineral+water absorption, storage, anchorage
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sources of stem cells
induces pluripotent cells= reprogramming differentiated cells to switch on key genes to become undifferentiated
adult stem cells= muscle, bone, tissue, skin- renewing source for undifferentiated cells
embryonic= early embryo when a zygote starts to divide
adult stem cells= muscle, bone, tissue, skin- renewing source for undifferentiated cells
embryonic= early embryo when a zygote starts to divide
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uses of stem cells
1) bone marrow transplants- treat diseases in the blood
2) repair of damaged tissues- hepatocytes to treat liver disease, nerve tissue to repair spinal injuries, treat mice with type 1 diabetes by programming IPS cells to become pancreatic beta cells
3) d
2) repair of damaged tissues- hepatocytes to treat liver disease, nerve tissue to repair spinal injuries, treat mice with type 1 diabetes by programming IPS cells to become pancreatic beta cells
3) d
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equation for photosynthesis
6CO2+6H20+energy=C6H12O6+6O2
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reactants, products + purpose of respiration and photosynthesis
respiration- glucose/oxygen, CO2/H2O, release energy
photosynthesis- CO2/H2O, glucose/oxygen, store energy
photosynthesis- CO2/H2O, glucose/oxygen, store energy
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what's the compensation point + compensation period
compensation point- when photosynthesis and respiration occurs at the same rate (no gain/loss of carbs)
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what type of reaction is photosynthesis
-carbon fixation so electrons required
-addition of electrons is a reduction reaction
-helps regulate concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
-endothermic so requires energy
-addition of electrons is a reduction reaction
-helps regulate concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
-endothermic so requires energy
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photosynthetic pigments- chlorophyll
found within the plasma membrane
mixture of pigments chlorophyll a + chlorophyll b
chlorophyll a= 2 forms- P680+P700
primary pigments in primary reaction centre
chlorophyll b= accessory pigments
(carotenoids+ xanthophyll)
mixture of pigments chlorophyll a + chlorophyll b
chlorophyll a= 2 forms- P680+P700
primary pigments in primary reaction centre
chlorophyll b= accessory pigments
(carotenoids+ xanthophyll)
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light dependent stage of photosynthesis
involves direct use of sunlight energy
1) light harvesting at the photosystems
2) photolysis of water
3) photophosphorylation- ATP production
4) formation of reduced NAD
1) light harvesting at the photosystems
2) photolysis of water
3) photophosphorylation- ATP production
4) formation of reduced NAD
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2 types of photosystem
PSI= the pigment at primary reaction centre is chlorophyll a (P700), peak absorption of red light at a wavelength of 700nm
PSII= the pigment at primary reaction centre is chlorophyll a (P680), peak absorption of red light at a wavelength of 680nm
PSII= the pigment at primary reaction centre is chlorophyll a (P680), peak absorption of red light at a wavelength of 680nm
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role of water
in PSII
-source of protons (hydrogen ions) to be used in photophosphorylation
-donates electrons to chlorophyll to replace those lost when light strikes chlorophyll
-is the source of by-product oxygen
-keeps plant cells turgid, enabling them to function
-source of protons (hydrogen ions) to be used in photophosphorylation
-donates electrons to chlorophyll to replace those lost when light strikes chlorophyll
-is the source of by-product oxygen
-keeps plant cells turgid, enabling them to function
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types of photophosphorylation
non-cyclic photophosphorylation- involves both PSI + PSII, produces ATP, oxygen + reduced NADP
cyclic photophosphorylation- involves only PSI, produces ATP in smaller amounts
cyclic photophosphorylation- involves only PSI, produces ATP in smaller amounts
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non-cyclic photophosphorylation
1) photon of light strikes PSII the energy is channeled to the primary pigment reaction centre
2) energy excites a pair of electrons inside chlorophyll
3) electrons escape from chlorophyll + captured by an electron carrier
4) electrons replaced by electr
2) energy excites a pair of electrons inside chlorophyll
3) electrons escape from chlorophyll + captured by an electron carrier
4) electrons replaced by electr
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Other cards in this set
Card 2
Front
properties of water
Back
1|) liquid at room temp- provide habitats
2) density- ice is less dense than water
3) solvent- transportation of molecules
4)cohesion/surface tension- insects can walk on water
5) high SHC- stable environment
6) high latent heat for vaporisation- sweat to
2) density- ice is less dense than water
3) solvent- transportation of molecules
4)cohesion/surface tension- insects can walk on water
5) high SHC- stable environment
6) high latent heat for vaporisation- sweat to
Card 3
Front
structure + functions of carbohydrates
Back
Card 4
Front
monosaccharides + hexose, pentose and triose sugars
Back
Card 5
Front
disaccharides
Back
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