Biopsychology

What are the two main branches of the nervous system?

Central nervous system + peripheral nervous system.

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What is the CNS made up of?

The brain and spinal cord

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What does the peripheral nervous system branch out to?

Somatic nervous system + autonomic nervous system

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What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

The sympathetic branch + parasympathetic branch

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What are the two key functions of the brain?

1. collect,process and respond to info in the environment
2. Co-ordinate and direct the working of the diff, organs + cells within the body.

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What are the two main functions of the spinal cord?

carries messages to and from the brain to the peripheral nervous system + Reflex arc

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What is the order of motion during the reflex arc?

Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - relay neurone - motor neurone - effector - response.

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What is the function of the peripheral nervous system?

Relay nerve impulses from the CNS to the rest of the body --> from the body back to the CNS.

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What is the somatic nervous system made up of?

Sensory afferent pathways: transmit + receive information from the senses.
Motor efferent pathways: allows the brain to control movement. Directs voluntary movement of skeletal muscles/ all movement from brain

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What is the control centre of the somatic nervous system?

The brain (motor + somatosensory cortex)

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What is the role of the autonomic nervous system?

Responsible for functions involved with homeostasis. Many functions require little to no conscious thought.

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What is the control centre of the autonomic nervous system?

The top of the brain stem (hypothalamus + pituitary gland).

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What is the autonomic nervous system divided into?

Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

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What does the parasympathetic branch do?

Tries to conserve/ store energy resources. Returns the body back to its usual state e.g. lowers heart rate. <opposite to the sympathetic branch>.

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What is the role of the sympathetic branch?

Involved in responses concerned with fight or flight e.g. increases blood pressure. When exposed to threat - controls biological changes for rapid action. Slows down non essential processes that consume energy e.g. digestion.

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Outline two comparisons between SNS and ANS.

1. SNS uses both sensory & motor neurons whereas ANS uses only motor.
2. Control centre of CNS = brain (motor & somatosensory); ANS = brain stem (hypothalamus + pituitary gland)

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Briefly describe what neurons do?

80% located in the brain. relay info around the brain + NS. Use electrical impulses + neurotransmitters.

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What does the average neuron made up of?

dendrites (receive. process + transfer info); nucleus; Axon(Carries nerve impulses away from soma); Myelin sheath; Nodes of Ranvier(gaps in MS which help speed transmission); Terminal buttons

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What is excitation of a neuron? Name two examples.

Creates a + charge, making the neuron more likely to fire. E.g. Dopamine + Glutamate.

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What is the inhibition of a neuron? Name two examples.

Creates a - charge, making the neuron less likely to fire. E.g. GABA + Glycine.

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What is summation?

the process that determines how frequently the neuron will fire by the combined effects of the inhibitory + excitatory signals.

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Briefly outline the function of the endocrine system.

secretes hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions; provides a chemical system of communication. Do not use nerves to transmit information, instead use blood vessels.

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What is a hormone?

A chemical messenger released from the endocrine system into the bloodstream that acts/ targets structures to alter their function/ or to release other hormones.

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What is the pituitary gland?

Governed by the hypothalamus, it exerts the most influence as a gland; having the power to influence other endocrine glands. This is the CNS main link to the endocrine system.

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Name three hormones released by the pituitary gland.

ACTH (targets adrenal cortex, stimulates release of glucocorticoids <i.e. cortisone + corticosterone>),
growth hormone (promotes cells growth)+ prolactin (targets mammary gland to stimulate milk production + release).

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Name three other glands other than the pituitary gland.

Adrenal gland (releases adrenaline + noradrenaline for fight or flight); Pineal gland (releases the hormone melatonin for regulation of bio. rhythms + sleep wake cycle); Thyroid (releases thyroxine to regulate metabolism + protein synthesis).

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What is involved where fight or flight is needed?

(Response is generated in the ANS by the sympathetic branch) - When a stressful situation is detected, it will alert the hypothalamus + activate the SAM pathway <the immediate response to acute stressors>.

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What are two examples of short term vs long term stressors?

Short term = presentation + argument with spouse
long term = poverty + dysfunctional family

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What are the four main techniques for studying the brain?

Post mortems; Electroencephalograms(EEG) ; Event related potentials (ERP); Functional magnetic resonance imaging(FMRI)

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What are the two strengths of a post mortem?
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* Harrison (2000) suggests method is useful in understanding of schizophrenia - suggesting that structural + neurochemical abnormalities linked to schizophrenia were first identified using this method.

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What are the two strengths of a post mortem?
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* Allow for detailed examination of the anatomical aspect of the brain (not possible in non invasive methods). Researchers can examine deeper regions of the brain + potential links to beh.

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What are the two limitations to using post mortem?
1/2

* issues with comparing the functioning of the brain before death (method is retrospective). May not tell enough on how person functioned before death. can't follow up any brain abnormalities + cognitive functioning as its too late

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What are the two limitations to using post mortem?
2/2

* Brain undergoes changes after death. Findings may lack accuracy, esp. if there is time delay before analysis. As soon as O2 is cut off from brain = shape + structure of many parts alter.

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What are two strengths for fMRI?

* Provides moving image of brain (rather than basic physiology) - dynamic nature of brain = highly valuable when making links to key beh.
* Non - invasive + doesn't expose brain to potentially harmful radiation (ethical)

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What are the two limitations on fMRI?
1/2

* Complexity of brain activity = interpreting the scan is complex + problematic. Made more difficult by time delay of scan

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What are the two limitations on fMRI?
2/2

* overlooks the networked nature of brain - only looks at localised activity. Some suggest = the comm. between diff, regions is most critical to mental functioning + this scanner can't deduce this

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What are the two advantages of a EEG?

* Cheaper than other methods. Far more available + used more extensively.
* Used effectively in clinical practice to study sleep disorders. E.g. epileptic seizure disturbed brain activity is shown + detected with EEGs

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What are the two limitations on EEGs?

*Output from machine = needs interpretation = high level of expertise needed to use effectively.
* Electrical activity can be picked up by neighbouring electrodes = not useful in pinpointing exact source. shows general act.

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What are the two strengths for ERPs?
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* Useful in measuring reliability of self reported techniques - esp. with topics that are sensitive + likely affected by social desirability

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What are the two strengths for ERPs?
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* Can directly measure neuronal activity + give the earliest indication of conscious cognitive processing. Can detect the slightest changes due to any environmental manipulation of stimuli.

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What are the limitations of using ERPs?

* Detects only strong voltage changes across scalp. Important EA deep in brain = not recorded. Limited to neocortex.
* Output = interpretated = expertise to be used effectively

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What is localisation?

The theory that specific areas of the brain are associated with particular physical + psychological functions.

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what are the four divisions of the brain?

Frontal lobe ; parietal lobe; occipital lobe + temporal lobe

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What is lateralisation?

The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain for particular physical + psychological functions.

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Give two examples of lateralized areas in the left hemisphere.

Broca's + wernicke's areas

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What does it mean for something to be contralateral?

It will be situated or affecting the opposite side of the body e.g. the right visual field will be received by the left hemisphere.

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What does it mean for something to be arranged somatotopically?

A specific part of the body will be associated with a distinct location in the CNS.

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Describe the localisation of the motor cortex.
Where is it?
what does it do?
How is it organised?

frontal lobe - responsible for voluntary movement (sends neural messages to muscles via CNS). - It is contralateral - it is also somatotopically arranged (i.e. finely controlled areas have bigger portions of cortex vise versa).

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Describe the localisation of the somatosensory cortex.
Where is it?
what does it do?
How is it organised?

Parietal lobe. Detects sensory events, produces sensations + localises them to body regions. Contralateral - somatotopic (i.e. areas with more receptors <hands> have larger portions of the cortex).

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Describe the localisation of the visual cortex.
Where is it?
what does it do?
How is it organised?

occipital lobe - visual processing begins in retina. light strikes the rods + cones. nerve impulses from retina transmitted to brain <via optic nerve>. Contralateral - contains diff areas which each process diff visual info. (e.g. color, shape)

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Describe the localisation of the auditory cortex.
Where is it?
what does it do?
How is it organised?

Temporal lobe - process auditory info - contralateral (information from right ear travel to left auditory cortex)

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What can damage to the visual cortex result in?

Loss of vision (cortical blindness) - however, visual perception also requires additional input from neighbouring cortical areas + damage to those = loss of specific visual perception (e.g. prosopagnosia - no identification of faces)

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What can damage to the auditory cortex result in?

Difficulties in processing + understanding sounds rather than total deafness (e.g. inability to perceive different pitches)

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Lateralisation: What is the left hemisphere associated with?

Focus on detail. language. numerical information

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Lateralisation: What is the right hemisphere associated with?

Whole picture. Spatial relationships (e.g. finding your way). Recognition of emotion. Art.

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Broca's and wernicke's areas are lateralised in the left hemisphere - Describe Broca's area.

In the posterior of the frontal lobe, next to the lower part of motor cortex. Speech production. Lesions in the area = difficulty with speech production.

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Broca's and wernicke's areas are lateralised in the left hemisphere - Describe wernicke's area.

In the posterior portion of temporal lobe. Comprehension of language (recognises language + associates meanings). Lesions to this area = Good speaking ability but struggle to understand.

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What does damage to both the broca's and wernicke's areas lead to?

Global aphasia - inability to understand or produce speech

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What connects the left and right hemisphere together?

Corpus callosum (broad band of fibres and nerves)

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What are exogenous zeitgebers?

External stimuli which provide info about lapse of time + prompt changes in bodily activity + patterns of our biological rhythms.

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What are two examples of exogenous zeitgebers?

nature + nurture in shaping our daily behaviour; light for maintaining rhythmic patterns.

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Briefly describe siffre's study.

Spent 179 days underground (no natural exogenous zeitgebers). Found = days lengthened to 25-30hrs. 151 'days' passed on this schedule. Body temp = desynchronised (25hrs).

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What are endogenous pacemakers?

Internal mechanisms that govern biological rhythms. Though internal, they can still be affected by the environment.

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What is an example of an endogenous pacemaker?

Circadian sleep wake cycle - this will continue to function without natural cues from light. Research suggests light is required to reset cycle every 24 hrs.

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How do endogenous pacemakers work to control the sleep wake cycle?

Internal body clock = in hypothalamus called the SCN (synchronises our sleep wake rhythm). SCN receives light - when light drops = SCN - fires impulses to pineal gland (melatonin) causing sleepiness. Light = decreases melatonin

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How does the sleep wake cycle function without light as a zeitgeber?

It will work around a 25 hr cycle.

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What is a biological rhythm?

any change in a physiological activity that repeats periodically in a set pattern - the frequency they change at determines what type of rhythm it is.

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What is an infradian rhythm?

A cycle which lasts more than 24 hours

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What is an example of an infradian rhythm?

Menstrual cycle - first 10-14 days= oestrogen & progesterone low; bleeding stops - FSH stimulated = growth of ovarian follicles.
Day 14 = ovulatory phase starts with FSH signalling ovaries to produce oestrogen = LH = egg released

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What is an ultradian rhythm?

Cycle which lasts less than 24 hours

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What is an example of an ultradian rhythm?

Sleep cycle - follows patterns of REM + NREM sleep - cycle repeats every 90-100 mins.
light sleep- heart rate slows - deep sleep - very deep sleep (brain = delta waves) - dreaming (hr increases)

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What is the circadian rhythm?

A cycle which lasts ~ 24 hours.

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How is the sleep wake cycle an example of a circadian rhythm?

It is a 24 hour cycle which determines our patterns of wakefulness + sleepiness (e.g. at 9pm = melatonin produced + 6:45 am = sharp rise in blood pressure) - dips + rises at certain times of day (2-4 am + 1-3pm)

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What is brain plasticity defined as?

The brain's ability to change + adapt as a result of experience and new learning.

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How can brain plasticity occur?

1. Synaptogenesis
2. Neurogenesis
3. Synaptic pruning

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Define synaptogenesis.

New synapsis form (can occur throughout life, but in infancy there is an explosion of synaptic formation <exuberant synaptogenesis>).

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What is neurogenesis?

When new neurons grow - in infancy this is responsible for populating the growing brain with neurons. (also occurs in adulthood).

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What is synaptic pruning?

process of synapse elimination (typically in early adulthood + the onset of puberty). <shown to occur to a lesser extent in adulthood>.

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What does the term 'functional recovery' refer to?

The transfer of functions from a damaged area of the brain after trauma to other undamaged areas.

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Functional recovery occurs after physical injury or other forms of trauma such as?

Brain damage + stroke

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What are the three things that occur during functional recovery?

Neural regeneration, neural unmasking + neural reorganisation.

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What does neural regeneration refer to?

Also known as axon sprouting, it occurs when new nerve endings grow + connect to undamaged areas. (Type of synaptogenesis).

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What does neural unmasking refer to?

Occurs when dormant synapses open and become functional. Opens connections of the brain that are not normally activated + allowing gradual development of new structures.

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What does neural reorganisation refer to?

When the brain transfers functions from the damaged area to undamaged sections of the brain. e.g. if Broca's area on the left hemi was damaged then right hemi could take over.

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How does the case of Danelli provide research support for functional recovery + plasticity?

Investigated an Italian boy who had most of his left hemi removed aged 2 1/2 to remove tumour.
With intense therapy = his right hemi took over almost all of the functioning normally done by the left hemi (i.e. language, speech)

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What is experience expectant plasticity?

The external inputs during critical development windows that guide the normal development of the brain.

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What is experience dependant plasticity?

The remodelling of the brain in response to unique life experiences.

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what is the difference between phase advance and phase delay? (jet lag)

Phase advance - travelling east to west extends your day
Phase delay - travelling west to east shortens your day

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What is shift lag?

The negative effects on workers caused by rotating shifts (in particular night shifts).

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Biopsychology

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