Motor Control

What did Keele (1968) say about motor programmes?

Motor programmes are a set of muscle commands structured before a movement begins. They are how movements are stored in the memory.

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What is the limitation of motor programmes?

There cannot be one for every single movement as there is not enough storage in the brain.

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What is the basis of the reflex theory?

The nervous system, reactions of various parts of the system and simple reflexes are all combined to bring about greater movements- this is called reflex chaining

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What are the limitations of the reflex theory?

It cannot explain; movement which occurs without sensory stimulus, fast/novel movements or the fact that one stimulus can have varying responses.

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What is the basis of the ecological theory?

Perceptual and motor systems evolved in natural environments- available information from the environment supports coordination of movement.

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What is perception action coupling?

Perceptual information coordinated spatiotemporal characteristics of athletes

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What is the definition of regulatory conditions?

Characteristics of performance environment that has an influence on movement pattern

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What is the definition of non-regulatory conditions?

Characteristics of performance environment which don't have an influence on movement pattern

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What is the definition of retention?

A permanent change in performance

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What is the definition of transfer?

Skill learned that can be used in another situation

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What is an absolute error measurement?

Magnitude of error without reference to direction

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What is Constant error measurement?

Amount and direction of the error

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What is variable error measurement?

Consistency of error determined by standard deviation of constant error score

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What is the Key feature in Adam's closed loop theory?

The role of feedback which causes the perceptual trace to get stronger meaning there will be less errors in performance

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What are the two types of Schema in Schmidt's schema theory (1975)?

Recall and Recognition schema

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What is recall schema?

It is involved in movement within given parameters

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What is recognition schema?

It evaluates the correctness of the completed movement

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What is the definition of a skill?

A task which aims to achieve a specific goal efficiently and effectively

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What is the definition of an action?

Movement of a limb in order to achieve a specific goal

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What is the definition of a movement?

Movement of a limb in order to complete a skill- usually linked together

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What does Gentiles (1972) 2 dimensional model consist of?

A scale of task organisation (continuous-serial-discrete) and a scale of environmental predictability (closed-open)

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How can a large amount of degrees of freedom be controlled according to Bernstein (1967)?

Actions can be organised into synergies- co-activation of muscles by a single neural demand signal

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What are the advantages to Gentile's (1972) 2 dimensional model?

It is a starting point for assessing movement skills. It allows evaluation of movement in a variety of contexts. It is useful in teaching ad rehabilitation

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What is the performance proficiency perspective?

Achieving a skill should be done as quickly and accurately as possible with as little effort as possible

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What do Schmidt and Wrisberg (2000) say about the performance proficiency perspective?

Proficiency is maximum certainty of goal achievement, minimum energy expenditure and minimum movement time

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What are the three outcome measures?

Time, magnitude and accuracy

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What do the outcome measures tell us?

What happened because of the movement but NOT how the movement was performed

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What is the definition of growth?

The structural aspect of development

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What is the definition of maturation?

Functional changes in development

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What does Haywood (1993) say life span motor development is?

Sequential, continuous and age related process where an individual progresses from a unskilled movement to highly organised and complex motor skills and the adjustments which accompany ageing.

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What is the dynamic systems perspective on reflexes?

Reflexes either disappear or are incorporated into a movement

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What are the primitive reflexes?

Suckling, rooting, labyrinthine, grasp, moro, babinski and walking

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What is the order of motor milestones?

Head control--body control--crawling--locomotion--anticipation--bimanual control

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What is a coordinative structure?

A functionally specific collection of muscles and joints constrained by the CNS to act cooperatively

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What is the advantage of a coordinative structure?

They decrease the amount of degrees of freedom that need to be controlled

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What did Schmidt say about a generalised motor programme (1975)?

They store families of movements rather than individual ones, they are adaptable, they allow for movement in dynamic environments and novel movements.

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What self organising features do coordinative structures exhibit?

1. They act in unison. 2. They can automatically change from 1 level of organisation to another. 3. Self correcting. 4. Non context specific- can achieve desired outcomes in varying environments

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According to Fitts and Posner (1964) what stages do learners go through?

Cognitive, associate and autonomous.

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What are the 3 sources of context conditioned variability in degrees of freedom according to Bernstein (1967)?

1. Anatomical factors. 2. Mechanical variability. 3. Physiological variability.

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What is the basis of the dynamical systems theory of movement?

It focuses on how multiple degrees of freedom are controlled

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What are the 3 stages of learning in terms of degrees of freedom according to Bernstein (1967)?

Novice- freezes degrees of freedom. Advanced- begins to release degrees of freedom. Expert- continues releasing degrees of freedom

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How did Turvey (1977) suggest we control movement?

Through coordinative structures- a group of muscles spanning several joints constrained to act in a single functional unit

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Define simple reaction time

The time taken to respond to a single stimulus with a single response

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Define choice reaction time

The time taken to respond when there is multiple stimuli and each require a specific response

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Define discrimination reaction time

The time taken to respond when there is more than one stimuli but only one requires a response

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Why does Gentile's 2-dimensional model (1987) provide a more precise description of movement?

Provides a more realistic view of movement and in the context in which it is performed

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What is spatial anticipation?

Anticipating WHAT will happen eg. what serve the opponent will choose

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What is temporal anticipation?

Anticipating WHEN it will happen eg. when will the ball bounce

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What is the foreperiod?

The time before the presentation of a stimulus eg. time before the gun in the 100m sprint

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What are the two types of anticipation according to Poulton (1957)?

Effector and receptor anticipation

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What is effector anticipation?

Knowing the position of the stimulus at time the response finishes

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What is receptor anticipation?

Receptors functioning in advance of response mechanism to determine characteristics of stimulus

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What is Posner's (1978) cost-benefit analysis?

Performers must weigh up the costs and benefits of anticipating what is going to happen. To anticipate a performer must have experience to recognise the correct cues. If done right- faster RT. If wrong- slow RT and errors

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What are the factors affecting anticipation according to Jackson and Farrow (2005)?

Foreperiod regularity- when constant RT can be decreased. Foreperiod duration- longer time to preview a stimulus it becomes easier to anticipate.

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What is the basis of hierarchal theory of movement?

It assumes that all aspects of movement planning and execution is solely done by the highest levels of the CNS

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What is the main limitation of the hierarchal theory of movement?

Relies on feedback and recent studies have predicted that feedback has little to no effect on rapid movements

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What are the 6 roles fulfilled by measuring movement?

1. Planning 2. Feedback 3. Evaluation 4. Prediction 5. Comparison 6. Monitoring

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What are the limitations of the reflex theory?

Doesn't take into account: absence of sensory stimuli, fast sequential actions, novel movements or the fact that a single stimuli can result in various responses

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What is reflex chaining?

Reflexes are combined to constitute a movement of the individual

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What is the role of the vestibular system?

Ensure a stable visual image, help posture and balance, regulate angular and linear accelerations of the head

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Where is the vestibular system located?

In temporal lobe of inner ear on each side of the head

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What are the 4 aspects of motor control according to Sheridan (1984)?

1. Motor equivalence 2. Uniqueness of action 3. Stability and consistency of action 4. Modifiability of action

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What is motor equivalence (Sheridan 1984)?

The ability to produce the same end result through different movement of different muscles and joints.

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What does uniqueness of action mean?

Movements are never exactly repeated

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What does stability and consistency of action mean?

Consistency of both temporal and spatial structure

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What does modifiability of action mean?

Action os capable of amendment as a consequence of changes of available information

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What is the reflex theory of movement?

Considers reflexes as a fundamental unit of motor control. Based on the work of Sherrington (1952). The basic assumption is that a stimulus causes a reflexive response

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What is the function of the golgi tendon organ?

It acts as a brake against excessive contractions- moderates muscle/tendon tension.

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How does golgi tendon organ work?

They are receptors which are activated by tension in a muscle causing a signal to be sent telling the muscle to lengthen

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What is the definition of perception-action coupling?

The interaction between perception and movement variables resulting in specific movement dynamics according to the perceptual variable

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What did Gibson (2979) say about perception-action coupling?

We must perceive in order to move but we must move in order to perceive

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What is the definition of perception?

The process of obtaining information from sensory stimuli and making it available for an action

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What does information from proprioception contribute to?

Body position, movement through space and postural control What did K

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What did Kelso (1982) say about controlling degrees of freedom?

If there is a system of two elements they each have an axes with A and B values so this created a system with 4 degrees of freedom but by linking the systems together the degrees of freedom is reduced to 3.

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What are the functions of muscle spindles?

They are stretch receptor in the muscle which detect the rate of change of length of a muscle

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How do muscle spindles work?

When a muscle is stretched they increase discharge rate of afferent fibres, these send message to motor neurone in spinal cord causing contraction of the muscle

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What is meant by self organisation of coordinative structures?

Specific stable patterns of behaviour due to certain conditions

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What things contribute to degrees of freedom?

Joints, Muscles, Alpha-Gamma linkages and Motor units

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What are degrees of freedom?

The amount of freedom in a movement of a limb due to many structures which have to be controlled at one time

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What is the main advantage of measuring movement?

Measurement provides us with evidence which can be used by coaches to give advice

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What is the difference between outcome measures and performance measures?

Outcome measures tell us what happened whereas performance measures tell us information on how it happened

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What are the advantages of using video analysis?

Cheap, easily accessed and provides a lot of information

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What are the advantages of kinematic analysis?

Provides detailed images, you only need 3 cameras to produce 3D image, gives information of velocity, acceleration and displacement, when dimensions are programmed it can tell you exactly where an object is- HAWK EYE

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What is the disadvantage of optical systems for measurement?

Occlusion- markers may be covered some of the time

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Give one advantage and one disadvantage of electromagnetic systems

Advantage: no occlusion issues as electromagnetic field passes through anything in the way. Disadvantage: wires and metal get in the way which may cause the participant to move in an unnatural way= invalid data

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What is electromyography (EMO)?

Electrical measurement of muscle firing through electrodes.

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What can EMO tell us about?

Coordination

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What is eye tracking?

A video based way of tracking movement of the centre of an athletes pupil so measure where athletes look when doing certain movements

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When has eye tracking been used in sport?

Used to track where Tour de France cyclists look when on a steep descent and approaching a corner- shown that the best look as far into the distance and round the corner as possible

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Motor Control

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