Philosophy - History and Theory of Medicine - Key People
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- Created by: Meloddymaybe
- Created on: 03-05-17 13:14
Plato (c. 428-348BC)
Tripartite soul - rationalis (reasoning, brain), vitalis (spirited, heart) and naturalis (appetitive, liver).
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Aristotle (384-322BC)
Unitary soul in heart, teleological view of nature (dissections to ascertain function/purpose). Highly influential - patronage of Alexander the Great - essentially established science through E. Mediterranean and Egypt e.g. Library of Alexandria.
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Herophilos (335-280BC)
Anatomy of brain, artery/vein distinction. Anatomy/physiology at Alexandria. Dis/vivisected animals/humans - no evidence of Egyptians after 280BC assimilation. Royal and educational lenience.
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Erasistratos (304-250BC)
Thought arteries contained air, quantitative experiments, body as mechanistic machine. See Erasistratos.
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Archagathus (219BC)
First Greek doctor in Rome. Granted citizenship and had own surgery but low economic status. To help with disease epidemic.
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Asclepius
Cult introduced as a result of Hellenisation. Son of Apollo. Daughters Hygieia (health), Iaso (recuperation), Aceso (healing), Aglæa (magnificence) and Panacea (universal remedy).
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Antiochis of Tlos (1st cent.)
Physician daughter of Diodotus the physician. Statue erected. Shows respect paid to some female healers e.g. midwives.
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Galen of Pergamun (120-200AD)
Gladiator surgeon, high-society physician, imperial service under e.g. Marcus Aurelius. Judeo-Xian morality but questioned spiritual healing, philosophical approaches as well as practical medicine. Sought to improve Hippocratic science basis. Dogma.
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Caelius Aurelianus (5th cent.)
Translated "On Acute and Chronic Diseases" into Latin. Survival of methodism despite Galen.
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Rhazes (-925)
"On Smallpox and Measles" work still valued in 19th c. Britain.
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Themison of Laodicea
Founded Methodic School (mechanistic, generalised, less history-taking, objective) of medicine in reaction to the Empiric (subjective, observations) and Dogmatic/Rationalist (e.g. Pneumatic ) schools.
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Hunyn ibn Ishaq (-873)
Nestorian Xian who became a physician with no uni education. Known among the Arabs as the "Sheikh of the translators" following Arabic conquest of Alexandria (Galen's texts stored).
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Avicenna (-1037)
First large systematisation of medicine since Galen. Latin translation of "Canon of Medicine" after death was authoritative for 100s of years.
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Albucasis (936-1013)
Surgery focus - 200 instruments illustrated, animal guts as sutures (much safer), cauterisation. 32 treatises
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Discorides (40-90AD)
De Materia Medica pharmacopeia of over 850 herbal derivatives that was read for 1500 years.
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Ibyn al-Baytor (-1248)
Described 3000 drugs, compiles from several sources. But very few dispensed from shops in practice.
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Ibyn al-Nafis (-1288)
One of few original contributions made in dissemination and discussion of Avicenna. Developed ideas of pulmonary circulation. Not acknowledged though due to other contemporary commentary.
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Vasco de Gama (1460-1524)
Portugese Count, first European man to sail to India.
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Copernicus (1473-1543)
Presented mathematical model of heliocentric system (planets revolve around the sun).
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Matthew Hopkins (1620-1647)
Claimed to hold office of Witchfinder General.
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Leonicenus (1428-)
"Improved" translation of Hippocrates. Example of "Renaissance humanism" (rise of learning and science), a response to increased popularity of rote learning.
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Leonard Fuchs (1501-1556)
German physician and botanist. Fuschia named after him. Author of a large Herbal Book with about 500 accurate drawings, being notable compared to its predecessors.
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Antonio Benivienni (published 1507)
Autopsy reports "Hidden Causes of Disease". Observation increasingly important in clinical medicine.
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Girolamo Fracastoro (1484-1553)
Named Syphilis (new disease imported from America via Columbus, or only just specified?) Developed early theory of contagious disease (multiply in patient's body and could be transferred) but pure speculation until 19th century.
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Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
"De humani corporis fabrica" (1543). Attacked by Galenists e.g. Sylvius of Paris (thought body had changed but Galen was right at the time! e.g. 5-3 lobed liver.
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Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Attacked Galenist theory. Low nobility, Peasant revolt sympathiser. Wrote in vernacular German. Critical of "learned medicine". "Luther of medicine" - argued that body had both physical and astral components.
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Paré (1410-1590)
French barber surgeon. Faced challenge of gunshot wounds through packing with turpentine and plastering. Served under 4 kings. Amputated healthy tissue. Vernacular, as did all prominent surgeons. Social climbing inspired laymen to desire profession.
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William Harvey (1578-1657)
"De Motu Cordis" (1628) established blood circulation. Led to adoption of blood transfusion (discredited but resumed 19th c.) and intravenous injections. Royalist influences? Heart/King over body/state. Based on e.g. Columbo, Fabricus of Aquapedente.
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Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Use of "air pump" to study effects of vacuum on animals.
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Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Artificial ventilation of vivisected animals.
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Jan Baptiste van Helmont (1580-1644)
"Gas" (from Greek chaos) into scientist vocabulary. 5-year tree experiment concept of conservation of mass.
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Regnier de Graaf (1641-1673)
Key discoveries in reproductive biology e.g. mature stage of ovarian follicle is called the Graafian follicle. Observed rabbits, so assumed fertilisation took place in the ovary. Experiments on dog pancreatic juices.
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Sanctorius of Padua (1561-1636)
Quantitative approach e.g. pulsilogium (first precise medical device in history). Self-experimented to determine balance between ingesta and extreta but something missing - origin of metabolism. Studied insensible perspiration (Erisastratos).
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Marcello Malpigi (1628-1694)
"Father of microscopical anatomy". Name bears to several physiological features related to the biological excretory system. Discovered capillaries (supported blood circulation theory) and made discoveries regarding organ microstructure.
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Antonie von Leeuwenhoek (1637-1723)
Dutch amateur, studied bodily fluids and whatever was around him. Identified "animalcules" through own constructed microscopes.
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Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680)
First to observe and describe RBCs. Key role debunking the balloonist theory ('moving spirits' are responsible for muscle contractions).
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Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Coined term "cell", analogy of monastery. First looked at cork - luckily has very distinct cells.
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Borelli (1608-1679)
E.g. of iatromechanics (maths/chemistry/physics). Suggested that ‘muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting' by demonstrating that living muscles did not release corpuscles into water when cut.
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Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689)
"English Hippocrates". Influenced by friend John Locke's ideas on sensualism. Aimed to identify diseases and thus develop specific remedies e.g. peruvian bark for "intermittent fever" (malaria). No balance restoration so raised doubts re: Galenism.
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JJ Wepfer (1620-1695)
Autopsies of apoplexy (stroke) victims proved due to blood vessel rupture (previously thought phlegm obstructed). Examined effects of poison in animals.
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Johannes Bohn (1640-1718)
Introduced the policy of thorough autopsies of deceased victims of lethal wounding.
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Paul Zacchias (1584-1659)
Work "Quaestiones medico-legales" established legal medicine as a topic of study (medical jurisprudence). Personal physician to two popes.
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Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Defined the Enlightenment as an age shaped by the Latin motto Sapere aude ("Dare to be wise").
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Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Principle of Utility - approves of an action in so far as an action has an overall tendency to promote the greatest amount of happiness (pleasure and the absence of pain).
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Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738)
Based on Cartesian mechanistic philosophy/iatrophysics. Disease arises from vessel blockages so rational therapy would be blood-letting. "Nervous fluid" hydraulic system.
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Friedrich Hoffman (1660-1742)
Similar to Boerhaave (not particularly original) but emphasis on muscular and nervous systems. Disease arose from overtension of muscles so treatment should focus on relieving spasms.
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George Ernst Stahl (1660-1734)
Hoffman rival. Argued for animism - effect of soul (anima) on body. Disease arose when soul was disrupted so use compensatory therapy e.g. mild opium.
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Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777)
Concluded that stimulus was somehow transmitted from nerve to muscle, yet two systems remained distinct. Revealed that function could be electrically provoked in decapitated animals thus disproving animism. Very controversial - against e.g. Cullen.
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John Brown (1735-1788)
Proud of simplicity of Brunonian system (unified model - all disease linked to stimulation) but controversial as drastically departed from teacher Cullen's respect for classification. Not applicable to hospital medicine so support declined.
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Johannes Peter Frank (1745-1821)
"Complete System of Medical Police" encompassed epidemiology, military, environment, lower classes, infant and occupational health. "Cradle-to-grave" paternalism.
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William Buchan (1729-1805)
"Domestic Medicine" example of a health manual written by physicians for laypersons - huge shift. Especially re: diet and hygiene.
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Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762)
Had children inoculated so raised popularity amongst aristocracy. Technique was tested on Newgate prisoners. First important to Royal families (protect heirs) but eventually reached lower classes. Superseded by Edward Jenner's 1796 safer vaccine.
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Pierre JG Cabanis (1757-1808)
Psychology = biology. All intellect comes from sensibility, which itself comes from the NS. Supported by Philippe Pinel (1745-1836), philanthropist for psychosocial treatment of insane, and student Bichat (1771-1802), founder of tissue pathology.
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FJV Broussais (1772-1838)
Military doctor. Emphasised lesions in GI tract as familiar with typhoid. Used leeches for-blood-letting to reduce inflammation in any fever.
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JN Corvisart (1755-1821)
Personal physician to Napoleon. Promoted (but did not invent - Auenbrugge) percussion - physical examination i.e. listening to chest.
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RTH Laennec (1781-1826)
Introduced stethoscope (1819); first a wooden tube, modern style by 1851. More indirect than percussion - avoided trouble with obese patients and female embarrassment. Description of pulmonary TB BUT a Royalist so not accepted at first.
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PCA Louis (1787-1872)
Uselessness/harmfulness of blood-letting. Statistical methods - argued that large numbers of patients would average out individual differences.
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FJ Gall (1758-1828)
Cranioscopic inference of localisation of mental functions and disease in brain. Accused of irreligious material so had to leave Vienna. Created discipline of phrenology.
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Thomas Addison (1793-1860)
Addison's disease (malfunction of supradrenal glands) and pernicious anaemia.
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Carl von Rokitansky (1804-1878)
Recognised as a young physician that the still little noted discipline of pathological anatomy could be of great service to clinical work in the hospital, because it could offer new diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities to the bed-side physician.
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Joseph Škoda (1805-1881)
Together with von Rokitansky, he was the founder of the Modern Medical School of Vienna. Škoda's great merit lies in his development of the methods of physical investigation for diagnosis in medicine.
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Johannes Muller (1801-1858)
Naturalist like von Haller. "Law of specific nerve energy" - optic/acoustic nerve stimulation always and only produces an optic/acoustic response. Microscopy of glands, embryology (Mullerian duct), cancer anatomy, teacher of other influential people.
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Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902)
"Omnis cellula e cellula", "Cellular Pathology" (1858). Better microscopy, discovered leukemia, thrombosis and embolisms. Politically committed e.g. Typhus Upper Silesia (1848) - "Medicine is a social science" not in a vacuum.
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Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
Discovered key liver function - glycogen storage. Diabetes studies (create artificial lesions in brain). "Milieu interieur" - chemical reactions within body allow independence from exterior e.g. warm-blooded.
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Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882)
Synthesis of urea - laws of chemistry not so different from old to new, and lab to nature.
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Justus von Liebig (1803-1873)
Classified foodstuffs (protein, carbohydrates etc.)
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Felix Hoppe-Seyler (1825-1895)
Discovered haemoglobin. Founded Journal of Physiological Chemistry - marks separation of physiology from physiological chemistry.
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Von Behring (1854-1917) and Kitasato (1853-1931)
Diptheria antitoxins developed from blood of animals; serum therapy helped reduce mortality rates BUT were already declining due to social, geographical etc. factors.
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Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915)
Thought toxins would interfere with molecules on cell surface so searched for theraputic substances to bind/block. Notably Salvarsan (arsenic compound against syphilis) beginning of chemotherapy. "Magic bullet" hypothesis.
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Gerhard Domagk (1895-1964)
Experimented with dyes. Developed sulfonamides e.g. Prontosil against staphylococcus.
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Florey (1898-1968) and Chain (1906-1979)
Purified Penicillin (1940s) following Alexander Fleming's 1928 discovery, clinically tested (1943) and dispensed to allied forces (1944) but busy wartime factories could not produce enough.
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Paul of Aegina (7th c.)
Significant medical writer. Works at Alexandria. Helped preserve Greek knowledge in Roman times.
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Henri de Mondeville (1260-1320)
Wound healing without pus (thought originally to be part of healing process) - wine, immediate closure. Ethical behaviour (fee, relation to doctor). Anatomical knowledge importance e.g. 1315 Bologna dissections.
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Guy de Chauliac (1298-1368)
Doctor and surgeon. "Chiruggia magna" many translations made up until 18th century. No radical difference from early surgery.
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John Hunter (1728-1793)
Large collection of specimens gifted to Royal College. Example of new academic surgical elite providing textbooks - "Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation and Gunshot Wounds".
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Horace Wells (1815-1848)
USA dentist. First to use nitrous oxide as general anaesthetic.
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James Young Simpson (1811-1870)
Used chloroform in child birth.
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Louis Pasteuer
See essay.
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Robert Koch
See essay.
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Joseph Lister
See essay.
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Ignaz Semmelweis
See essay.
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Hildegard vin Bingen (1098-1178)
Example of an abbess who founded/supervised an infirmary. Corresponded with important religious figures. Believed way of life e.g. diet, Catholicism could prevent disease.
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TS Wells (1818-1897)
"Cleanliness and cold water surgery". Only admitted spectators who testified that they had not been in an autopsy room for a week.
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Margaert Beaufort (1443-1509)
Founded Oxbridge colleges. Personally attended sick at Westminster.
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Elizabeth Fry (1780-1859)
Prison reformer and nurse training for Crimean War. See also Florence Nightingale.
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Josephine Butler (1828-1900)
! Campaigned against prostitution - age of consent from 13 to 16, and repeal of Contagious Diseases Act (focussed on treating prostitutes for venereal diseases rather than telling men to be careful).
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Sophia Jex-Blake (1840-1912)
Led campaign to allow women entry into university. 1870 Surgeon's-Hall riot against them taking exams, but still became first licensed female doctor in Edinburgh.
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Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910)
First in America. Accepted by all 150 male students but was later rejected by most European hospitals. Founded London Medical School for Women with Jex-Blake. Thought women should "soften" medicine e.g. paediatrics.
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Dorothea C Erxleben-Leporin (1715-1762)
Unique example of Prussian liberalism. Accused of "quackery" but in response submitted a dissertation to Halle and was succesfuly examined in 1754.
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E. G. Anderson (1836-1917)
Applied for apothecary license as there was no anti-women legislation (had forgotten to put it in!)
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Mary Putnam (1842-1906)
Published in scientific areas. University of Paris (allowed female admission). Thought women could compete on equal terms with men - no reason otherwise.
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Thomas Percival (1740-1804)
Example of early ethical literature - "Medical Ethics" (1803). Served as model for American Medical Association.
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Ann Dally (1983)
Provided drugs to addicts. Couldn't find out whether or not this was acceptable due to inconsistency of GMC.
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Carl Wunderlich (1815-1877)
"Temperature in Diseases: a Manual of Medical Thermometry". First comprehensive study - Galileo's thermometry had no clinical application. Healthy person's temp. is constant. Different diseases caused patterns (e.g. malaria alternating 3 days).
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Wilhelm Röntgen (1845-1923)
X-rays. Noticed that when discharged a cathode-ray tube, fluorescent material started to glow, producing photographic image. Findings presented to Physico-Medical Society and immediately circulated.
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Henry Salt (1851-1939)
Founder of Humanitarian League (1891) - for abolishment of animal experimentation, private slaughtering, corporal punishment and death penalty.
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Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Argued that rise of absolutism under Louis XIV led to "great confinement" of all "unreasonables" e.g. 6000 in Paris 1660s, to be controlled not treated. BUT criticised by e.g. Roy Porter.
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychodynamic theory of the Psychiatric Body. E.g. shock therapy, psychoanalysis, drugs.
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Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890)
Secretary for Poor Law Commission (1834). Appointed 3 doctors to report on health conditions in London districts in 1842. Concluded that cleaning etc. should be responsibility of local boards and "Medical Officer of Health" should co-ordinate.
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John Graunt (1620-1674)
Weekly London Bills of Mortality (statistics). Recognised importance of individual disease mortality to overall mortality, and excess of male births and higher male infant mortality.
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Arnold Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
Argued that human virtues should be extended to animals - criticised Kant's anthropomorphic philosophy that we only have an indirect obligation (animals as phantoms to exercise compassion). Central to Bayreuth Circle but harmed by Nazi associations.
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Gregor Mendel (1882-1884)
Heredity NOT acquired characteristics. Simple statistics. BUT ideas not accepted at first (ignored or misunderstood).
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Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Theory of pangenesis - e.g. toxin stimulates liver cells to produce "gemmules" containing info which fuse with reproductive cells so that next generation are informed. INCORRECT.
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Rosalind Franklin
X-ray crystallography enabled Watson & Crick to discover structure of DNA in 1950s, hence beginning the central dogma. She didn't receive Nobel Prize in 1962 but only because she was deceased!
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Mondino de Luzzi (1275-1326)
Recovered anatomy - brought back the practice of public human dissections and wrote the first modern anatomical text "Anatomia Mundini".
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René Descartes (1596-1650)
"De homine". Body as a machine - mechanistic philosophy, e.g. compared the circulation of the blood with an ever-running flow, which can drive different machines.
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Alexander Munro II (1733-1817)
"Observations on the Structure and Function of the NS". Adopted and expanded von Haller's theories on the Sensitive Body.
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Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926)
Somatic (internal) explanation of the Psychiatric Body. Founder of ‘pharmacopsychology’. Inspired the psychiatrists who in 1980 radically revised the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), the foundation of today’s classification of mental illness.
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Arnold Berthold (1803-1861)
Known as a pioneer in endocrinology due to his experiments on the role of the gonads i.e. testes in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
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Henry Dale (1875-1968)
Idea of chemical neurotransmitters, initially very controversial thanks to e.g. vs. John Eccles - believed it was an electrical phenomenon.
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Ernest Starling (1866-1927)
Definition of hormones. Precise nature unknown. Brother-in-law William Bayliss - conceived of a feedback loop that worked ALONGSIDE the NS; no need to worry about WHICH was correct.
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Banting & Best (1930s)
Learned activity of insulin. Example of hormone structures being determined and clinically synthesised.
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Lamarck (1744-1829)
Believed that acquired characteristics could be inherited.
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William Bateson
Coined the term "genetics" in 1906. Response to fears about "degeneration" (eugenics).
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Weismann (1834-1914)
Germ plasm theory - inheritance only takes place via germ cells, not acquired.
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Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945)
Discovered that genes were found on chromosomes.
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Hippocrates (460-375BC)
Corpus of 60+ texts, unlikely all written by him. Oath (no cuts, adultery, abortion...) still relevant today.
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Other cards in this set
Card 2
Front
Unitary soul in heart, teleological view of nature (dissections to ascertain function/purpose). Highly influential - patronage of Alexander the Great - essentially established science through E. Mediterranean and Egypt e.g. Library of Alexandria.
Back
Aristotle (384-322BC)
Card 3
Front
Anatomy of brain, artery/vein distinction. Anatomy/physiology at Alexandria. Dis/vivisected animals/humans - no evidence of Egyptians after 280BC assimilation. Royal and educational lenience.
Back

Card 4
Front
Thought arteries contained air, quantitative experiments, body as mechanistic machine. See Erasistratos.
Back

Card 5
Front
First Greek doctor in Rome. Granted citizenship and had own surgery but low economic status. To help with disease epidemic.
Back

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